MEXICO 



A HISTORY OF ITS PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT 
IN ONE HUNDRED YEARS 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2010 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/mexicohistoryofiOOwrig 



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GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 

PRESIDENT 

OF THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO 



MEXICO 



A HISTORY OF ITS PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT IN 
ONE HUNDRED YEARS 



BY 

MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT 

MEMBER OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BRAZIL, GEOGRAPHICAL 

SOCIETY OF LA PAZ, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF MEXICO, HISTORICAL AND 

SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTE OF SAO PAULO 



PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY 

GEORGE BARRIE & SONS 

LONDON: C. D. CAZENOVE & SON, 26 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W. C. 

PARIS: 19 Rue Scribe 






-W?f 



COPYRIGHT, iqn, BY GEORGE BARRIE & SONS 



3} t o,° ° 
t CU320244 



TO HIS EXCELLENCY 

lateral iJorftrfo Mia} 

PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO 

A GREAT MAN AMONG THE EMINENT MEN OF THE WORLD, WHO ON HIS EIGHTIETH BIRTHDAY 

IS STILL ACTIVE IN BODY AND SOUL; A POWERFUL ADMINISTRATOR OF THE 

SPIRITUAL AND MATERIAL GOOD OF HIS COUNTRY 

•ts DdJtratrti 

THIS STORY OF A HUNDRED YEARS OF INDEPENDENCE 

MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

DEDICATION . .* 5 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 9 

INTRODUCTION 1 3 

CHAPTER I 

THE CONQUEST 17 

CHAPTER II 

VICEROYALTY 4Q 

CHAPTER III 

THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 65 

CHAPTER IV 

THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 83 

CHAPTER V 

HISTORICAL EVENTS 105 

CHAPTER VI 

GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ I27 

CHAPTER VII 
THE CABINET 147 

CHAPTER VI11 

THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 1 59 



PAGE 

CHAPTER IX 

THE CENTENNIAL 179 

CHAPTER X 
CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE 203 

CHAPTER XI 

ART AND LITERATURE 219 

CHAPTER XII 

CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 235 

CHAPTER XIII 
EDUCATION 257 

CHAPTER XIV 

MEXICO 269 

CHAPTER XV 
PUEBLA 287 

CHAPTER XVI 

TLAXCALA 303 

CHAPTER XVII 

HIDALGO 3^ 

CHAPTER XVIII 

TRANSPORTATION 325 

CHAPTER XIX 

OAXACA ....'. 3jg 

7 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XX 

VERA CRUZ 353 



CHAPTER XXI 

TAMAULIPAS 359 



CHAPTER XXII 

COAHUILA 369 



CHAPTER XXIII 

NEUVA LEON, SAN LUIS POTOSl', AGUASCALIENTES 373 



CHAPTER XXIV 
QUERETARO 383 



CHAPTER XXV 



ZACATECAS. 



387 



CHAPTER XXVI 
DURANGO 395 

CHAPTER XXVII 

CHIHUAHUA 401 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
JALISCO 411 I RUINS 



CHAPTER XXIX 
GUANAJUATO 421 

CHAPTER XXX 

COLIMA 425 

CHAPTER XXXI 

THE WEST COAST 433 

CHAPTER XXXII 

MICHOACAN, MORELOS, GUERRERO 453 

CHAPTER XXXIII 

YUCATAN 467 

CHAPTER XXXIV 

CAMPECHE, TABASCO, CHIAPAS 470 



CHAPTER XXXV 

CUSTOMS 487 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

RESOURCES 493 



CHAPTER XXXVII 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ Fronts. 

ARMS OF MEXICO Title page 

BAS-RELIEF ON THE STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC . 17 

HERNANDO CORTES iS 

THE VISIT OF CORTES TO MONTEZUMA 20 

CARVING OF THE TIME OF THE YTCEROYALTY . . 22 

HOUSE OF CORTES AT COYOACAN 25 

THE NOCHE TRISTE TREE 26 

THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY OF MEXICO 28 

THE WOODS OF CHAPULTEPEC 30 

THE AZTEC CALENDAR STONE 32 

XOCHITL PRESENTING PULQUE TO TEPANCALTZIN 35 

AZTEC IDOL 39 

BANNER CARRIED BY CORTES 43 

PORT MARQUEZ WHERE CORTES BUILT HIS FLEET 46 

CARVINGS : CHURCH OF SANTA ROSA. QUERETARO 48 

BURNING OF THE FEET OF CUAUHTEMOC 49 

DOOR OF THE HOUSE OF CONDE DE SANTIAGO. 51 

SACRIFICIAL STONE 53 

PALACE OF ITURBIDE, NOW A FAMOUS OLD HOTEL 54 

STATUE OF CHARLES IV 55 

CARVINGS ON THE CHURCH OF LA SANTISIMA . . 56 

IDOLS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM 57 

FOUNTAIN IN MEXICO CITY 5S 

STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC 60 

OLD CARVING OF THE TIME OF CORTES 62 

THE MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC .... 64 

GATEWAY: MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC . 65 

HIDALGO 67 

JOSE MARIA MORELOS 6S 

HIDALGO'S PRISON AT CHIHUAHUA 69 

ITURBIDE 71 

THE LIBERTY BELL: NATIONAL PALACE 73 

CYPRESS TREE. CHAPULTEPEC 76 

HIDALGO ON HORSEBACK 77 

RESIDENCE OF HIDALGO. AT DOLORES HIDALGO . 80 

THE NATIONAL PALACE 82 

THE TOMB OF JUAREZ 83 

BENITO JUAREZ 85 

SENOR GENERAL DON RAMON CORONA 88 



SENOR GENERAL DON MARIANO ESCOBEDO ... 8y 

RURALES ON THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER 91 

SENOR GENERAL DON MANUEL GONZALES .... 94 

GENERAL CARLOS PACHECO 95 

PICTURESQUE SPOT IN THE ALAMEDA 97 

A COUNTRY ROAD IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO . 100 

GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 102 

NATIONAL MUSEUM, SHOWING AZTEC RELICS . . 104 

NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE 105 

GENERAL DIAZ AND PRESIDENT TAFT 107 

STATUE OF COLUMBUS 109 

THE POST OFFICE Ill 

POST OFFICE, WEST CORRIDOR 1 13 

NATIONAL LIBRARY 115 

HISTORICAL CORNER IN MEXICO CITY 118 

A PART OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT OF CHAPULTEPEC 120 

ROAD IN PUEBLA. SHOWING POPOCATEPETL ... 122 

PRIVATE LIBRARY OF A PROMINENT LAWYER. . . 124 

CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC 126 

THE PROCESSION OF THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER . 127 

SENORA DONA CARMEN ROMERO RUBIO DE DIAZ . I 30 

ESCORTING THE PRESIDENT ON THE 5TH OF MAY 132 

THE TRIBUNAL, 5TH OF MAY 133 

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL PORFIRIO DIAZ 135 

CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC 137 

STAIRWAY TO THE CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC. . 1 38 

RECEPTION AT THE PALACE 1 39 

CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC 141 

PORFIRIO DIAZ, THE THIRD 143 

SOLDIERS IN PARADE, 16TH OF SEPTEMBER .... 144 

THE CORBIAN PALACE 146 

PATIO OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR . 147 

SENOR DON RAMON CORRAL, VICE-PRESIDENT. . 14S 

SENOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL 149 

SENOR LIC JOSE LIMANTOUR 150 

SENOR ING. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ 15° 

SENOR LIC. OLEGARIO MOLINA 15 1 

GENERAL MANUEL GONZALEZ COSIO 152 

SENOR LIC. JUSTO SIERRA 153 

SENOR LIC. JUSTINO FERNANDEZ 154 

9 



10 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

THE LATE IGNACIO MARISCAL 155 

CORRIDOR: SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING 1 56 

STREET SCENE IN MEXICO CITY 158 

COLON1A JUAREZ 159 

SENOR DON GUILLERMO DE LANDA Y ESCANDON 161 

HOME OF GOVERNOR LANDA Y ESCANDON .... 163 

THE NEW LEGISLATIVE PALACE 165 

HOME OF VICE-PRESIDENT CORRAL 167 

THE PALACE OF MINES 169 

SAN FRANCISCO STREET 171 

POLICE HEADQUARTERS 172 

AMERICAN EMBASSY 173 

POLICEMAN 174 

MEXICAN LETTER CARRIER 175 

FEDERAL PENITENTIARY 176 

GREAT HISTORICAL PARADE, SEPTEMBER 15, igio . 178 

EMPEROR MONTEZUMA IN HIS PALANQUIN .... 179 

MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE 182 

PRIESTS AND SERVANTS OF CORTES 184 

A PART OF THE HISTORICAL PARADE 186 

NOBLEMEN WITH ESCORTS 189 

SITE OF THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT. PRE- 
SENTED BY THE AMERICAN COLONY 192 

MONTEZUMA'S ARMY IN MILITARY PARADE .... I94 

UNVEILING OF THE HUMBOLDT STATUE 196 

THE JUAREZ MONUMENT I98 

THE ARMY OF CORTES IN PARADE 200 

RECEPTION HALL OF THE SPANISH CASINO ... 202 

PATIO OF THE SPANISH CASINO 203 

HISTORICAL STAIRWAY OF JOCKEY CLUB .... 206 

THE JOCKEY CLUB 208 

SENOR DON SEBASTAIN CAMACHO 210 

FOUNTAIN IN THE PATIO OF THE JOCKEY CLUB 212 

SENOR JOSE SANCHEZ RAMOS 214 

STAIRWAY IN THE SPANISH CASINO 2l6 

•■ANAHUAC." BY SENOR JORGE ENCISO 218 

"THE MENDICANTS." BY SUAREZ 219 

GALLERY IN THE MODERN SCHOOL OF PAINTING 221 

"AN EPISODE OF A FIRE." BY G. CARRASCO ... 222 

"THE FORTUNATES." BY SATURNINO HERRAN . . 224 

"THE ETERNAL VICTIM." BY F. ROMANO .... 226 

"A PORTRAIT." BY HERA1AN GEDOVIUS 228 

"CHILDREN OF MISERY." BY SOSTENES ORTEGO 231 

"THE ROUND UP." BY JUAN URRUCHI 232 

CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO 234 

WALL AROUND THE SHRINE AT CHURUBUSCO . . 235 

DR. JOSE' MORA, ARCHBISHOP OF MEXICO .... 236 

THE CROWN OF THE VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE . . 237 

THE SHRINE OF GUADALUPE 239 

SANTA MONICA, GUADALUPE 240 

ORGAN IN THE CATHEDRAL, MEXICO CITY .... 241 

CHURCH NEAR COYOACAN 243 

FACADE OF SAN AGUSTIN 244 

THE SACRED WELL AT GUADALUPE 245 

LUNATIC ASYLUM 247 



THE GENERAL HOSPITAL, CITY OF MEXICO . . . 250 

THE CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL, FEDERAL DISTRICT . 252 

PAVILIONS OF THE GENERAL HOSPITAL 254 

STAIRWAY IN THE COLLEGE OF THE MASCARONES 256 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OF MEDICINE 257 

PATIO OF THE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE 258 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS 259 

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR MEN .... 260 

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR WOMEN . . 261 

ENTRANCE TO SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS 262 

SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS 262 

STAIRCASE, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS 263 

NATIONAL PREPARATORY SCHOOL 264 

COMMERCIAL SCHOOL 265 

SAN CARLOS ACADEMY 266 

MORELOS PARK, TOLUCA 268 

STREET SCENE, TOLUCA 269 

GENERAL FERNANDO GONZALEZ 271 

GOVERNOR'S PALACE 272 

MONUMENT TO COLUMBUS 273 

MUNICIPAL PALACE 274 

TEMPLE OF VERA CRUZ, TOLUCA 275 

LEGISLATIVE PALACE, TOLUCA 276 

PALACE OF JUSTICE 277 

INDEPENDENCE AVENUE, TOLUCA 278 

SCHOOL OF LAW 279 

NORMAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS 280 

MATERNITY HOSPITAL 281 

TEMPLE OF MERCED 282 

STATE BANK 283 

GENERAL HOSPITAL 284 

MUNICIPAL PALACE 286 

RESIDENCE OF GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ . . . 287 

MONUMENT TO NICOLAS BRAVO 288 

GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ 289 

STATUE OF GENERAL ZARAGOZA 290 

STATE COLLEGE 291 

CATHEDRAL 292 

LA MATERNIDAD, PUEBLA 293 

MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE, PUEBLA 294 

RIM OF THE CRATER OF POPOCATEPETL .... 295 

AN OLD CHURCH DOOR 296 

THE ARCADE, PUEBLA 298 

THE PENITENTIARY, PUEBLA 300 

PORTALES, FACING THE PARK, TLAXCALA 302 

AVENUE LEADING TO SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT . 303 

OLD CHURCH TOWER, TLAXCALA 305 

SENOR CORONEL PROSPERO CAHUANTZI 306 

ARCHWAY ENTRANCE: SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT 307 

SACRED WELL OF OCOTLAN 3°8 

RUINS OF THE ROYAL CHURCH, TLAXCALA .... 309 

LA PARROQUIA 3" 

OLDEST PULPIT AND ALTAR IN AMERICA 312 

ZOCALO IN REAL DEL MONTE 3U 

PANORAMA OF MINERAL DEL CHICO 315 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



11 



PAGE 

GOVERNOR SENOR DON PEDRO RODRIGUEZ. . . 316 

THE GOVERNOR'S PALACE 3 1 7 

SAN JU! IO MINE 3'8 

STATUE OF HIDALGO 3 19 

n \. II NDA 1 1 >R1 rO 320 

XATAL MINE 321 

REAL DEL MONTE MINE 321 

SAN RAFAEL MINE 322 

OFFICE OF THE NATIONAL RAILWAY OF MEXICO 324 

DEVIL'S BACKBONE, TOMASOPO CANON 325 

OLDEST RAILWAY STATION IN THE WORLD ... 327 
NOCHISTONGO CUT, BUILT BY THE AZTECS TO 

DRAIN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO 328 

ROCK BELOW CHONEBRIDGE, NATIONAL RAILWAY 329 

TEQUIXQUIAC TUNNEL 33° 

CANON WEST SALAZAR, NATIONAL RAILWAY ... 331 

VIEW ON THE INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY 332 

DRY DOCK, SAL1NA CRUZ 333 

TELEGRAPH OFFICE IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 334 

TOMASOPO CANON 336 

THE GOVERNOR'S PALACE 338 

THE CATHEDRAL 339 

STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ 34 1 

STATUE OF GENERAL ANTONIO DE LEON 342 

FACADE OF THE CASINO 343 

STAIRWAY: INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE. . 344 
STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ, ON THE MOUNTAIN 

OVERLOOKING HIS NATIVE CITY 345 

SENOR EMILIO PIMENTEL. GOVERNOR OF OAXACA 346 

NORMAL SCHOOL FOR WOMEN 347 

CORRIDOR: INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE. . 348 

THE PORFIRIO DIAZ HIGH SCHOOL 350 

THE CITY OF ORIZABA 352 

THE PEAK OF ORIZABA 353 

POST OFFICE, VERA CRUZ 354 

OLD GATEWAY, ORIZABA 355 

INDIAN WOMEN IN THE TROPICS 355 

NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, JALAPA . . 356 

PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR SALAZAR 357 

THE HARBOR, VERA CRUZ 357 

OLD FORT OF SANTIAGO 358 

TAMESI RIVER FRONT, TAMPICO 359 

SENOR DON JUAN B. CASTILLO, GOVERNOR OF 

TAMAULIPAS 360 

AVENIDA PRIETO, GOVERNOR'S PALACE, VICTORIA 361 

PLAZA JUAREZ, VICTORIA 361 

PLAZA DE ARMAS. TAMPICO 362 

A FIELD OF ZAPUPE 363 

A TARPON 364 

PLAZA, VICTORIA 365 

TAMPICO PLAZA 366 

NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, SALTILLO . 368 

JUAREZ MARKET, SALTILLO 369 

SENOR DON JESUS DE VALLE, GOVERNOR OF 

COAHUILA 370 



PAGE 

GOVERNMENT PALACE, SALTILLO 371 

STATE CIVIL COLLEGE. SALTILLO 372 

GOVERNOR'S PALACE, MONTEREY 373 

PLAZA ZARAGOZA 374 

PALACE OF GOVERNOR, SAN LUIS POTOSf .... 375 

CATHEDRAL, AGUASCALIENTES 376 

THE BATHS AT AGUASCALIENTES 377 

STREET SCENE IN AGUASCALIENTES 378 

THE BISHOP'S PALACE, MONTEREY 379 

TEMPLE OF SAN MARCOS. AGUASCALIENTES ... 380 

THE FEDERAL PALACE, QUERETARO 382 

CONVENT OF THE CROSS WHERE MAXIMILIAN 

WAS IMPRISONED 383 

AQUEDUCT AT QUERETARO 385 

MEMORIAL CHAPEL TO MAXIMILIAN, MARKING THE 

PLACE OF HIS EXECUTION 386 

A GENERAL VIEW OF ZACATECAS 387 

THE CATHEDRAL, ZACATECAS 388 

FACADE OF CATHEDRAL 389 

STREET SCENE, ZACATECAS 390 

THE CHURCH OF GUADALUPE, ZACATECAS .... 392 

THE CATHEDRAL, DURANGO 394 

THEATRE, DURANGO 395 

SENOR DON ESTEBAN FERNANDEZ, GOVERNOR OF 

DURANGO 396 

GOVERNOR'S PALACE. DURANGO 397 

SENOR DON ALBERTO CINCUNEGUI, SECRETARY 

OF STATE 398 

CERRO DEL MERCADO 398 

ENTRANCE TO PENITENTIARY, DURANGO 399 

ALAMEDA, DURANGO 400 

THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA 4°I 

STREET SCENE IN CHIHUAHUA 402 

MONUMENT TO JUAREZ, CHIHUAHUA 403 

STATUE OF HIDALGO, CHIHUAHUA 404 

INTERIOR OF THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA 405 

RESIDENCE OF SENOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL. 

CHIHUAHUA 406 

THEATRE OF THE HEROES, CHIHUAHUA 4°7 

ARCHWAY OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT, CHIHUAHUA . 408 

FALLS OF JUANACATLAN, JALISCO 41° 

STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA 411 

GOVERNMENT PALACE, GUADALAJARA 413 

STREET SCENE. GUADALAJARA 414 

DEGOLLADO THEATRE. GUADALAJARA 415 

THE HOSPICIO, GUADALAJARA 416 

PATIO: AMERICAN CONSULATE. GUADALAJARA . . 417 

LAKE CHAPALA, JALISCO 418 

THE JUAREZ THEATRE. GUANAJUATO 420 

VIEW OF THE PORFIRIO DIAZ TUNNEL, GUANAJUATO 421 

EL CARMEN CHURCH. CELAYA 422 

STREET SCENE, GUANAJUATO 423 

THE MANUEL GONZALEZ DAM, GUANAJUATO ... 424 

PLAZA, COLIMA 425 

STREET SCENE, COLIMA 426 



12 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

CATHEDRAL, COLIMA 426 

AT THE FOOT OF COLIMA VOLCANO 427 

MAGUAY GROWING AT THE FOOT OF THE COLIMA 

VOLCANO 427 

RESIDENCE OF COLONEL EDGAR K. SMOOT, MAN- 

ZANILLO 428 

COLIMA IN ERUPTION 429 

SUMMIT OF COLIMA VOLCANO 429 

PACK TRAIN ON THE ROAD TO COLIMA 430 

IRRIGATING CANAL, CULIACAN 432 

ENTRANCE TO MAZATLAN 433 

GOVERNOR DIEGO REDO, SINALOA 434 

NEW MOUNTAIN ROAD AT MAZATLAN 435 

THE HARBOR, MAZATLAN 436 

PLAZA DE LA REPUBLICA, MAZATLAN 437 

STREET SCENE, CULIACAN 438 

SENOR DON JOAQUIN REDO 439 

CUTTING SUGAR CANE, EL DORADO 439 

AQUEDUCT, CULIACAN 440 

PORT-ALES, CULIACAN 441 

GENERAL LUIS TORRES, GOVERNOR OF SONORA . 443 

GOVERNMENT PALACE, HERMOSILLO 444 

CATHEDRAL AT ALAMOS, SONORA 445 

SENOR DON ALBERTO CUBILLAS, VICE-GOVERNOR 

OF SONORA 446 

BAY AT GUAYMAS 447 

BANK OF SONORA, GUAYMAS 448 

RAMON CORRAL PARK, HERMOSILLO 448 

YAQUI INDIANS 449 

MUNICIPAL PALACE, GUAYMAS 450 

LAKE PATZCUARO, MICHOACAN 452 

THE PLAZA, ZAMORA 453 

CHURCHYARD GATE, TZINTZUNTZAN 455 

SENOR DON PABLO ESCANDON, GOVERNOR OF 

MORELOS 456 

PALACE OF CORTES, CUERNAVACA 457 

FLYING BUTTRESS, CUERNAVACA 458 

LA BORDA GARDEN, CUERNAVACA 459 

SENOR DON DAMIAN FLORES, GOVERNOR OF 

GUERRERO 461 

THE PALACE, CHILRANCINGO 462 

TAMARINDO TREES, IGUALLA 463 

BALSAS RIVER, GUERRERO 464 

HOME OF SENOR DON AUGUSTO PEON, MERIDA . 466 

THE GOVERNOR'S PALACE, GRAND PLAZA 467 

SENOR DON ENRIQUE M. ARISTEGUI, GOVERNOR 

OF YUCATAN 46S 

SENOR DON AUGUSTO PEON 469 



PAGE 

VIEW OF MERIDA 470 

HIS GRACE, MONSEIGNOR MARTIN TRISHLER, FIRST 

ARCHBISHOP OF YUCATAN 471 

CORRIDOR OF THE CURATE HOUSE, MERIDA . . 472 

MODEL SCHOOL FOR BOYS, MERIDA 472 

THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE 473 

FACADE OF THE MONTEJO HOUSE, MERIDA ... 474 

INDIAN HEMP CUTTER 474 

JUAREZ PENITENTIARY, MERIDA 475 

STAIRWAY IN THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE . 476 

ARCH TO CELEBRATE THE CENTENNIAL, MERIDA . 476 

PLAZA DE LA INDEPENDENCE, CAMPECHE .... 478 

THE CATHEDRAL, CAMPECHE 479 

PALACE OF JUSTICE, CAMPECHE 480 

STATUE OF HIDALGO, CAMPECHE 481 

GENERAL ABRAHAM BANDALA. GOVERNOR OF TA- 
BASCO 482 

STREET SCENE, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA 483 

STATUE OF JUAREZ, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA . . . . 484 

PARK IN SAN JUAN BAUTISTA 485 

PAROCHIAL CHURCH, CHIAPA 486 

YAQUI INDIAN DANCE 487 

INDIAN MAIDEN WATER CARRIER 488 

TYPE OF TEHUANTEPEC WOMAN 489 

IN RIDING COSTUME— CHARRO SUITS 490 

A TYPE OF THE MAYA WOMAN, YUCATAN 49 1 

MEXICAN BASKET SELLERS 492 

SAN BARTOLO MINE, ZACATECAS 493 

SUGAR MILL, ATEQUIZA HACIENDA 495 

PULQUE VATS 496 

BOUNDARY LINE BETWEEN JALISCO AND TEPIC . 497 

AVENUE OF DATE PALMS, SONORA 498 

A COFFEE AND BANANA PLANTATION 499 

COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR CORDOBA 500 

PACK TRAIN WITH SUGAR ON THE ROAD TO 

MARKET 502 

"GOVERNMENT HOUSE," UXMAL, YUCATa'n .... 504 
CHAC-MOOL IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, CITY OF 

MEXICO 505 

RUINS AT MITLA 506 

SEPULCHRE, NEAR MITLA, OAXACA 506 

ARCH OF THE "GOVERNMENT HOUSE," UXMAL, 

YUCATAN 5°7 

CHICHEN-ITZA, YUCATa'n 508 

RUINS AT MITLA, OAXACA 509 

PYRAMID OF THE SUN, SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN . 509 

RUINS OF PALENQUE, CHIAPAS 510 

"HOUSE OF THE DOVES," UXMAL, YUCATAN ... 511 



NTRODUCTION 




N 1896 I travelled throughout Mexico and made a complete study 
of the country, visiting every State and Territory, gathering valu- 
able data for my book, Picturesque Mexico, which was published 
in 1897. With the exception of the warm welcome extended me 
on my return in 1910, I scarcely knew Mexico of fourteen years ago. Every- 
where is progress and the social development was a revelation to me. This 
time I travelled over highways and byways in palace cars instead of stage 
coaches, litters, and muleback. 

Through intimate knowledge of Mexico and her people gained during 
these extended tours, and through the enjoyment of official courtesies and 
private hospitality of a most gracious nation, I have been able to get from the 
best sources interesting features of the national life and history. 

I realize more than ever how meagre is the information of the general 
public outside Mexico, of the beauties and resources of this marvellous country. 
She holds her proud place in the world as a demonstration of what statesman- 
ship and good government can accomplish. 

Mexico has just completed her hundredth anniversary of freedom from 
Spanish rule. The Sociedade de Geographia do Rio de Janerio, of which 1 am 
an honorary member, sent me as a delegate to this centennial, and as a partici- 
pant in these festivities gathered much accurate information concerning this 

13 



14 INTRODUCTION 

jubilee, which not only marked a great era in the history of Mexico, but 
celebrated the eightieth birthday of the Grand Old Man of the Americas, 
General Porfirio Diaz, who for nearly half a century has been the honored and 
beloved president. 

This present Mexico tells a story of a hundred years of the republic; of a 
struggle for independence and her freedom. It is historical and descriptive, 
but does not in any way deal with the political affairs of the day. I am grate- 
ful for all the courtesies which I have received in this hospitable land. 

To the President of the Republic, to the Governors of the States, and to 
the distinguished officials of the National Railways of Mexico, I wish to extend 
my sincere and kind appreciation. I am indebted to Mr. C. B. Waite for per- 
mission to use some of his copyrighted views, and to Mr. C. F. Clarke, for many 
photographs. 

M. R. W. 
Chislehurst, New Rochelle, N. Y., December 26, 1910. 



MEXICO 




BAS-RELIEF "ON THE STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC 



CHAPTER 



THE CONQUEST 



THE history of Mexico is an inspiring one, filled with tragic eras. The 
earliest inhabitants known were the Toltecs, who came from Central 
America in the seventh century. They were proficient in many crafts and 
erected gigantic temples, traces of which have been found in all parts of the 
Republic. This race was followed by the Aztecs, or Mexicans, in the four- 
teenth century. These were scattered throughout the Valley of Mexico and 
their warlike deeds of bravery have formed many a theme for beautiful stories. 
After two centuries they became a semi-barbaric nation, living in the glory of 
the natural wealth of their country. A great chieftain, Montezuma, was their 
monarch, and at the head of their vast army. 

When the resources of this great land became suspected by European 
powers, four hundred years ago, each nation greedily sought to grasp her oppor- 
tunity of adding to her riches this new field. Spain was more determined and 
appointed willing subjects to make voyages of discovery to the great unknown 

country. The first explorer to visit Mexico was Hernandez de Cordova, in 1517, 

17 



18 



MEXICO 



but his discoveries lay about the coast of Yucatan and his brilliant reports 
caused a thirst for the conquest of the new land. 

The siren voices of gold and glory perpetually sounded in the ears of Spanish 
adventurers, stirred their ambitions and nerved them to deeds of unforgotten 
bravery. 

Columbus had found gold in the strange lands he had discovered in the West 
Indies, he had tracked it westward in 1498, as he found the Island of Trinidad, 

threaded the waters of the Gulf of Paria, 
sighted the great continent southward 
and later discovered the Isthmus of Pan- 
ama, then called Veragua. But Mexico, 
the land of surpassing beauty and wealth 
that was to be the rarest jewel of the 
Spanish possessions, the land that was to 
give forth inexhaustible riches to fill the 
dwindling treasury of Spain, and to sus- 
tain her waning power, was yet unknown. 
Spanish rule had been planted in the 
Islands of San Domingo, Cuba and Porto 
Rico. The thirst for gold and glory grew 
with the enjoyment of their possession. 
Settlement established, the representa- 
tives of the Spanish Crown made seats of 
government new centres for extension of 
Spanish dominion. 

When the news reached Spain, in 1499, 
of the discovery of Paria by Columbus a 
year previously, Alonso de Hojeda, who 
had been one of the companions of Colum- 
bus, set out with Juan de Cosa, as chief 
pilot, and Americo Vespucci. They fol- 
lowed the route and took a course south of his, sighting the coast of Surinam, 
thence to the Gulf of Paria to the Island of Curacao, and afterward to the 
Gulf of Venezuela. As a result of this marvellous accomplishment vast and 
undreamed of wealth soon poured into Spain. 



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HERNANDO CORTES. 



THE CONQUEST 19 

The governors of the settlements established were men whose imagination i 
were soon tired with the prospect of vast powers and unlimited wealth to be 
seized. Even yet it was not known what continent had been found. The 
barrier, narrow as it was, that stood between the Pacific and Columbus had nol 
been penetrated. The mystery of the continent was still unsolved, the vast 
and prolific countries that stretched north and south of the Gulf of Mexico 
were unknown lands. 

Among the numerous Spaniards who sought to unveil the mystery of the 
continent and to plant new colonies for Spain was Nunez de Balboa, who under- 
took to colonize Darien, and in 1513 crossed the Isthmus of Panama and in 
defining the limit of the continent there discovered the Pacific, which he named 
the South Sea, and claimed it and the islands lying on it in the name of his 
sovereign. 

The first navigator of the Gulf of Mexico was Hernandez de Cordova, who, 
in 1517, sailed from Cuba, where he was stationed in the service of Spain, on a 
slaving expedition among the Bahamas. Contrary winds drew him to an 
unknown coast, where he landed and found the first sign of that advanced 
culture which distinguished Mexico among the discovered countries. This 
place he called Yucatan. Here the natives were found to be dwelling in houses 
of stone and mortar and wore garments of well-woven cloth. They worshipped 
in magnificently carved temples adorned with idols and ornaments of gold. 
But to gain possession of this prize the Spaniards had a long and bitter struggle. 
At Champoton they narrowly escaped destruction by the natives, whose mili- 
tary organization proved remarkable. Against such a force the valor and arms 
of the invader had to yield. But Cordova had sailed around the peninsula to 
Campeche, Champoton and the River Estero de los Lagartos; thence he returned 
to Santiago de Cuba, laden with wonderful spoils. Amongst his acquisitions 
were crowns and ducks of gold, fish and idols. Much encouragement was 
found in the declaration of two native captives of the expedition that there 
were gold mines and gold dust in abundance in their country, the fame of which 
soon reached Spain. 

The governor, Velasquez, elated with the reports of Cordova fitted out a 
large expedition the following year, of which his nephew Juan de Grijalva was 
given chief command. Following the course of Cordova, Juan de Grijalva 
found difficulty at first in securing the friendship of the natives, but he was 



20 



MEXICO 



able later to obtain much gold in barter. Learning that precious metals could 
be found in a country called Mexico, he sailed northward and made many 
discoveries along the Mexican Coast, among others the Island of San Juan 
de Ulua, in the harbor of Vera Cruz, and the Tabasco River. It is recorded 
by Bernal Diaz, who was a contemporary of Cortes, that on one occasion 
the explorers, believing that the highly polished axes, with curiously carved 
handles, of the people of Guascasualco, were made of an inferior gold, were to 
discover when they exchanged trinkets for them, that they were simply finely 




THE VISIT OF CORTES TO MONTEZUMA. 



polished copper. Notwithstanding this fact, Velasquez was determined 
on a thorough exploration of Mexico and he appointed Cortes to the command 
of a new expedition, which set out from Cuba on the tenth of February, 1519, 
in twelve vessels carrying seven hundred men. It was not without jealous 
misgivings that the governor saw this intrepid leader depart, nor, as events proved, 
was he mistaken in his suspicion regarding the great ambition of Cortes. The 
expedition reached Trinidad, where Velasquez having determined to replace 
Cortes sent vessels to detain him, but he had departed on February 18, 1519, 
and reached the shores of the unknown land in March, 1519. His little force was 



THE CONQUEST 21 

awaiting him at the Island of Cozumel, near the extreme point of the Peninsula 
of Yucatan, whence it sailed with two hundred Indian slaves and sixteen horses. 
This was the power with which the great Aztec land was to be won and the proud 
ascendancy of Montezuma to beoverthrown. The roll of companions of thedaring 
leader included many names that were to become imperishably recorded in the 
history of Spanish America. Among them were the brilliant Pedro de Alvarado, 
Alonso de Avila, Cristobal de Olid, Francisco de Montejo, Diego de Ordaz, 
Velasquez de Leon, Alonso Puertocarrero and Anton Alaminos. 

The solemn directions to Cortes were that he should explore the country 
discovered by Cordova; restore to freedom the Spanish held in captivity by the 
Indians; convert the natives to the Christian faith and barter with them; and, 
finally, to use the most scrupulous care to omit nothing that might redound to 
the service of God or his sovereign. 

Reaching the Tabasco River, which Grijalva had discovered a year before, 
following the course of that explorer, Cortes landed and gained the first glimpse 
of that civilization of which had been told such wonderful stories. The people 
were of advanced culture, the houses were substantially built and the natives 
wore rich and beautiful garments. That first intercourse was also to give a 
foretaste of the struggle before him. The Totonacs were the rulers of the land, 
they were subject to the authority of the Aztecs, but made desperate because of 
the tribute they were compelled to pay and the severe treatment accorded to them, 
they were not unwilling to see in the new comers allies to them in their struggles 
against Montezuma. With their natural instinct of self-preservation they resisted 
the approach of the Spaniards and only after a sanguinary battle, on the 25th 
of March, in which they were defeated, would they enter into friendly relations 
with the invaders. In testimony of their goodwill they presented many female 
slaves to the conqueror, among whom was the celebrated Marina, whose affec- 
tionate loyalty and intelligence later proved a great assistance to the Spaniards. 
This woman, who in Aztec was called Malintzin, was born in Coatzacoalcos, 
she was the daughter of a great cacique, on whose death her mother sacrificed 
her in the interest of a brother and sold her to the cacique of Tabasco. 

Besides his victory in arms, Cortes won over a large number of converts 
who were received into the bosom of the church with great ceremonial pomp. 
Thus did he lay the foundation of his great work by fulfilling the obligations 
imposed upon him by his sovereign. This auspicious beginning elevated the 



22 



MEXICO 




hopes of the Spanish and they 
sailed northward on April 18th 
and after delays by storms reached 
San Juan de Ulua. Here the na- 
tives manifested a friendly spirit 
and barter was readily entered 
into. Establishing himself in this 
place, the commander desired that 
messengers should be sent to Mon- 
tezuma to notify him of the wish 
of the Spaniard to visit him. 

Montezuma sent his ambas- 
sador, Teuthile, with wonderful 
gifts, in pomp and glory, and in 
this representative of the great 
monarch, Cortes found a person of 
different attainments from those 
of any native he had hitherto 
met. His dress was costly and he 
wore ornaments of precious metals ; 
his manners were dignified and 
with diplomatic skill he made it 
known that he desired to learn 
the wishes of the stranger. He 
was informed that Cortes desired 
to visit Montezuma to meet him 
on behalf of his own monarch. 
After an interval the ambassador 
returned accompanied by a distin- 
guished cacique and attended by 
one hundred men bearing beautiful 
gifts of exquisitely wrought feather 
work and receptacles filled with grains of gold and other artistic articles, all 
demonstrating the possession of rich materials and an advanced knowledge of 
the handicrafts. Such gifts served only to stimulate the Spaniard's purpose to 



CHURCH CARVING OF THE TIME OF THE VICEROYALTY. 



THE CONQUEST 23 

conquer this rich country. To the request thai Cortes should return to hi 
own land, the reply was only a still more earnestly expressed desire to interview 
the Mexican monarch. Failing by diplomacy to gain an audience with the 
monarch. Cortes now realized that force alone could give him possession of this 
wonderful land that he conceived to be his by right of his discoveries. 

While awaiting the outcome of negotiations with Montezuma, the audacious 
leader had busily occupied himself in acquiring information concerning the 
country and its wealth and in considering means by which he should seize the 
possessions he coveted. He learned that the Totonacs had occupied their 
territory for seven or eight centuries; that they had lost their independence 
to the Aztecs two or three generations before; and had suffered very great 
indignity and borne many heavy burdens. He shrewdly used his opportunities 
to contract a firm friendship with these people. 

Cortes observing that some of his companions were mistrustful of him, 
began to chafe under the burden of his obligation to Velasquez. He decided 
now to throw off his duty to the governor, and strengthen his own independence 
and power before his plans could be interfered with and his great prospect 
should become known. Sagaciously, if not loyally, therefore, he founded the 
City of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz and created it a Spanish municipality; then 
resigning his commission from Velasquez, he caused his own appointment as 
commander-in-chief of the expedition, and placed himself directly under the 
authority of the Spanish crown. To advance his interests with his sovereign in 
this course, he sent Montejo and Puertocarrero to Spain with instructions to 
explain his situation and plans, and in order to demonstrate the wonders of their 
new territory he dispatched some natives and a large treasure with them. 

So adroitly had Cortes acted toward the Totonacs whom he had thus far 
met that he received an invitation from the chief of the tribe to visit the capital 
at Cempoalla. He proceeded toward that city, the fleet sailing along the coast/ 
while the expedition penetrated the strange country. As they progressed the 
dreary and arid lands changed to a scene of luxuriant and verdant vegetation, 
a flora bewilderingly beautiful to their eyes, with evidences everywhere of a civili- 
zation they had not expected, and also of the barbarism of their native religion 
in the remains of numerous victims who had been immolated to propitiate 
their gods. Giant hills broke the distant view, and the snow-covered peak of 
Orizaba, majestically stood above the valley. The people wore rich mantles 



24 MEXICO 

and robes of finely woven cloth, crudely wrought golden chains hung on their 
necks, and rings adorned their nostrils and ears. They welcomed the Spaniards 
with friendly acclaim and bore before them in profusion tropical fruits and 
flowers. 

The city entered was substantially and attractively built, and the prospect 
was gladdening to the heart of Cortes. Their houses were of a primitive brick 
and mortar, were surrounded by gardens of fruit trees and shrubbery, while 
around the city stretched rich fields of grain, giving the scene a picturesque 
appearance. 

Cortes was soon convinced that the Totonacs and other tribes who were 
subjects of Montezuma were hostile to their monarch. Ever alert to forward 
his plans, he soon seized on an incident that gave him an occasion to make 
lasting friends of the Totonacs. Some Aztec tax-gatherers had arrived to 
demand a tribute of twenty young men and women to be sacrificed to the gods 
in expiation of the reception the tribe had given to the Spaniards. The chief, 
feeling the assurance of Spanish protection, cast the tax-gatherers into prison. 
Thereupon, conceiving an adroit plan to gain the favor of both Aztecs and 
Totonacs, Cortes rescued two of the five captives, whom he caused to be safely 
conducted to Montezuma, and preserved from sacrifice the other three. By 
this diplomatic stroke he was able to establish alliances with several chiefs 
against Montezuma. 

At this time, the audacious genius of the commander was manifested in a 
crisis that threatened not only his dominion but all that his imagination had 
conjured up. The friends of Velasquez in his army having stirred up a con. 
spiracy against Cortes and intending to seize one of the vessels and return to 
Cuba, the leader made a desperate hazard to compel the allegiance of his com- 
panions and cut off all chance of defection. In August, 1519, he ordered eleven 
of his ships to be sunk in the harbor, alleging as the cause that they were worm- 
eaten. There was now no course open to him but to remain in the country and 
conquer the people, or be destroyed. 

Cortes thereupon garrisoned Vera Cruz with a hundred men, and set out 
on his march to the City of Mexico, first destroying the idols in the teocalli at 
Cempoalla. His force now consisted of about four hundred and fifty Spaniards, 
six light guns, fifteen horses, a number of Totonacs and a numerous body of 
Indian carriers. 



////;■ CONOU/iS'I 



25 



Continuing his progress the Spaniard approached the territory of the 
Tlascalans, an independent people, who were said by the Totonac chief to hate 
the Aztecs so bitterly that the Spaniards would be sure of a friendly reception. 
They were doomed to a bitter disappointment. The Tlascalan country lay on 
the east of the Plain of Anahuac and was closely encircled by high ranges and 
when the Spaniards reached the boundary of the territory they found it defended 
by a strong stone wall. Messengers were sent to request a free passage through 
the country, but this' was denied. They regarded this as a challenge and scaled 




HOUSE OF CORTES AT COYOACAN. 



the enclosing wall, but met a most stubborn foe. Again and again did the little 
Spanish force tremble for their fate as they received the attacks of the enemy, 
who numbered thirty thousand brave warriors, but their arms and skill proved 
too much for the Tlascalans, with their primitive weapons, and after a great 
struggle they were defeated. Not all their bravery could avail them against 
the desperate and determined Spaniards. The natives had made a mistake 
in believing that the Spaniards were children of the sun and that they could be 
defeated in a moonlight attack. Acknowledging their defeat, they soon made 
peace and Cortes and his allies entered the city on September 22, 1510. No 



26 



MEXICO 



more faithful men could be found than these Tlascalans, whose enmity to 
Montezuma the able Cortes knew well how to turn to account. Binding firmly 
the bonds of friendship and alliance, the conquerors were able to move forward, 

on October 13th, on their way to Cho- 
lula, the next main city between them 
and Tenochtitlan. 

The sight of the magnificent tem- 
ple with its hundred towers, with its 
rich carvings and decorations of gold, 
dazzled the eyes and exalted the hopes 
of the small Spanish force, with its 
intrepid leader, and its six thousand 
Totonac and Tlascalan allies, as the 
Sacred City of Choi u la was. ap- 
proached. The ruler of the beautiful 
city was ready to welcome Cortes, until 
he learned that their enemies, the 
Tlascalans, were among his forces, and 
became suspicious and unfriendly 
toward the Spaniards and refused to 
permit them to enter unless the Tlas- 
calans were left outside of the city. 
With his usual promptitude of action 
Cortes notified the ruler that he would 
leave the city the following day and 
requested that the caciques furnish 
him with two thousand guides. Pur- 
suing this plan, apparently, he drew 
up the greater part of his troops within 
the court of one of the temples, and 
ranged the rest without, with a full 
command of the avenues; then he 
issued orders that at a given signal 
the Tlascalans should enter. The 
the noche triste tree; caciques arrived at the appointed 




THE CONQUEST 21 

hour with the number of men requested, who no1 realizing the strategy of the 

Spaniard came unarmed and nut prepared for any unfriendly attack. Cortes 
ordered an attack upon this body of men, and for several days a horrible 
slaughter of the unprepared Cholulans lasted, until at least six thousand were 
massacred. Their own peril and the right of self-preservation could not justify 
such an act of treachery on the part of a Christian invader. Men who practised 
the sublime teachings of Christ, and were horrified at finding in Mexico pagans 
and idol worshippers, still felt they could by a lawless disregard of what was really 
right, slaughter human beings in their greed for conquest. This is one among 
many blots on the history of Spain. On November 1st, the ambitious con- 
queror resumed his determined march to the Aztec capital. The success he had 
achieved over the Cholulans proved to Montezuma that the intrepid Spaniard 
could not be turned from his purpose. In vain did he send his representatives 
bearing royal gifts, with the intention of becoming friendly with Cortes, but the 
richness of the gifts only served to strengthen the ambition of the Spaniard to 
gain all those riches for the crown. With unwearying steps, and with still 
greater determination, the conquering force moved on to Tenochtitlan. Neither 
the frowning barriers of the valley, nor the dangers before them, could turn their 
steps aside. Even the huge Popocatapetl was made an instrument of their will, 
a minister to their necessities, for Diego de Ordaz led a party of Spaniards to the 
mouth of its vast crater to test its accessibility and find out if sulphur could be 
obtained for making gunpowder. Everything gave courage to the Spaniards. 

Nature unfolded vistas of most enchanting beauty; luxuriant vegetation 
clothed the land with a verdure so intense in color and dense in its exuberance 
as to insure an inexhaustible source of wealth; and the capital product gold was 
in evidence everywhere, furnishing a prize to be won that was well worth every 
sacrifice. 

As Cortes approached, the Aztec ruler's perplexity knew no bounds. 
He appealed to his council, they were divided in opinion as to the course he 
should pursue. His brother, Cuitlahua, or Cuitlahuatzin, counselled an im- 
mediate attack, while Cacamatzin, the ruler of Texcoco, urged that the Span- 
iards be received with all the courtesy due to the ambassadors of a foreign 
ruler. Already had Ixtlilxochtil, Cacamatzin's brother, entered into friendly 
alliance with the Spanish leader. Distracted, Montezuma, inspired by his 
religious superstitions, believed that the gods had decreed against him. He 



28 



MEXICO 



dispatched Cacamatzin, accompanied by many of the principal caciques and 
an imposing retinue of attendants, to greet Cortes at Amaquemacan and bid 
him welcome to the capital. Thus invited and well attended, the invaders 
passed through Iztapalapan amid great throngs of astonished natives eager to 
get a look at the wonderful beings and their strange dress and accoutrements. 
At last the proud, magnificent city was before them, the goal of their enterprise. 




THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY OF MEXICO. FROM A PAINTING BY JOSE JARA. 



Over the causeways on the lakes, foot and horse marched, an unwonted spectacle. 
What hopes and fears tormented them as, step by step, they moved toward the 
entrance to Tenochtitlan and beheld the city in all its splendor stretched along 
the shores of Lake Texcoco! A handful of Spaniards, less than five hundred, 
supported only by native allies who might at any time turn against them, 
marching to a city whose inhabitants they had been repeatedly told were 
treacherous. But the die was cast. 



THE CONQUEST 29 

On November 8th, Montezuma proceeded to the outskirts of his capital 
and personally invited Cortes and his companions into the Aztec capital. It 
was no barbarian, in outward guise at least, that greeted the Spaniard. Instead, 
a proud and dignified ruler attired in sumptuous princely robes, and surrounded 
by a pomp and ceremony as exacting as that of any of the Old World courts, 
received with marked politeness and courtesy the unwelcome guest. All 
pointed to the extreme exclusiveness and dignity of Montezuma, and when 
Cortes, following the Castilian custom, sought to embrace the Aztec, he was 
forcefully prevented by the attendant chiefs, who deemed the act disrespectful 
to so great a personage as their ruler. The reception completed, Montezuma 
appointed an escort, consisting of his brother and his nephew, to conduct Cortes 
within the city and to the quarters assigned to them as a residence. 

The original Aztec capital was built on an island in one of the cluster 
of lakes occupying the Valley of Anahuac. Here on the western side grew 
the settlement about the temple of rushes, till the capital spread over the islands, 
the dwellings being raised on piles and filled ground as it was required. Ruler 
after ruler added to its extent and endeavored to beautify it, till at the time of 
the Conquest, its structures resembled fairy castles. The great avenues con- 
structed of hard cement crossed the city running from north to south and 
east to west crossing at the centre. That running north and south extended 
in both directions, by means of causeways, to the mainland, and the other 
to the mainland on the west. The causeways were carried on piles and 
were broad enough to allow of ten horsemen riding abreast, and at intervals 
were bridged to permit of the passage of boats. The aqueduct conveying 
the water to the capital was supported on a similar causeway. The dwellings 
of the people were one story high and were frequently built on terraces. Each 
stood by itself and was separated from the others by narrow lanes or little 
gardens and enclosing an open court. High above these rose the many temples, 
on mounds, and above all, soared the great temple of the god of war. 

Cortes entered the capital with all the honors of a victor, to the strains of 
music and with colors flying, and was conducted to the palace of Axayacatl, the 
father of Montezuma, as his place of residence. No resistance was offered, the 
ruler yielded to the gloomy predictions of the priests, he who had always been so 
proud and valiant in war, that, but a few years before, he had been elected chief 
in preference to his elder brother. Yet almost abjectly, at the approach of 



30 MEXICO 

the Spaniards, he humbled himself and his people in awe, influenced by the 
superstitions of his religion. 

It is possible to form a correct idea of the person and character of Monte- 
zuma from a description given by one of Cortes's party. He was about forty 
years old, tall, slender and thin, but well-proportioned. His complexion, like that 
of the other inhabitants, was not very brown. His hair was long only over his 




THE WOODS OF CHAPULTEPEC. 

ears, which it covered; his beard was black and handsome. His face was some- 
what long and its expression cheerful, and his fine eyes were full of expression. 
He had many concubines, all of whom were of note and rank, besides two lawful 
wives of lineage equal to his. 

The palace occupied by the Spaniards was situated near the temples, a local- 
ity selected in conformity with the belief that they were of divine character and 
should, therefore, be domiciled near the gods. The apartments were very large 
and those appropriated to Cortes were furnished with carpets. Each of his 



THE CONQUEST 31 

companions was provided with a separate bed, and given all the comforts and 
luxuries suitable to his rank. 

On the day after their arrival in the city, Montezuma visited Cortes and 
invited him to his palace where he made acknowledgment of Spanish supremacy. 
It is impossible to suppose that Montezuma could have regarded the presence 
of the Spaniards as other than inimical to his country's interest, especially 
in view of the fact that their native allies and companions were his bitter 
enemies. The evidences that each succeeding day furnished of the great 
strength of the Aztec nation and of the powerful organization by which the 
country was governed brought clearly to the mind of Cortes the magnitude 
of the undertaking to which he was committed and the stupendous difficulty 
that must attend his work of conquest. Everything he saw of the riches 
of the Aztecs, of the resources of the country both pricked him on and gave 
him pause. Wealth and magnificence, order and discipline were apparent on 
all hands. From the top of the great temple, Cortes had viewed the sur- 
rounding country. The great causeways; the system of defensive drawbridges; 
the busy canoes laden with the produce brought regularly to the great mar- 
kets, thronged with active traders; the vision of temples towering one above 
the other glistening white in the clear atmosphere; all spoke of strength and 
organization; of a political system that was directed with care and ability. 
Cortes had succeeded thus far through audacity and a bravery even to mad- 
ness. The conditions were such that the same qualities must be largely relied 
on for further gains. 

The Totonacs had by the terms of their contract with Cortes cast off 
their allegiance to Montezuma and refused to continue the payment of tribute, 
so when an Aztec chief sought to compel the people of Cempoalla to do so, they 
refused and took up arms and Escalante, the Spanish commander at Vera Cruz, 
came to their support. Though the Aztec Cuauhpopoca was defeated in the 
encounter, Escalante was killed. There had also been a real or imaginary plot 
against the life of Cortes. Here was his occasion. He saw in it a means of 
promoting his purpose, no matter what the rights involved might be. Promptly 
deciding, he called five of his most trusted and audacious companions, Pedro de 
Alvarado, Gonzalo de Sandoval, Francisco de Lujo, Velasquez de Leon and 
Alonso de Avila and to them imparted his plan to seize and hold Montezuma, 
and with them called on the ruler, at the same time ordering a small body of 



32 



MEXICO 




k 




THE AZTEC CALENDAR STONE. 



soldiers to assemble in Montezuma's 
palace while the major part was sta- 
tioned in the courtyard and the 
avenues leading thereto. 

Montezuma, unsuspicious of 
the plot, received Cortes with ac- 
customed courtesy, and offered him 
one of his daughters in marriage; 
but as such an alliance was not 
likely to further the conqueror's 
designs it was declined. Throwing 
off the mask, Cortes charged Mon- 
tezuma with treachery, as being 
the instigator of Cuauhpopoca's de- 
mand on the people of Cempoalla 
and of the subsequent conflict, and 
called upon him to summon the chief. To this Montezuma assented, but it 
availed him naught, for Cortes further required that he should reside in the 
palace of the Spaniards in order to establish his innocence in the matter. He 
was finally seized and held to prevent any treachery on the part of his subjects. 
Captivity was not to be Montezuma's only fate; his relentless foe humiliated 
him for awhile by riveting fetters on his ankles. To strike terror into the hearts 
of the Mexicans, Cortes ordered the chief, Cuauhpopoca, his son and fifteen men 
of rank to be burned at the stake in view of a great multitude of Aztecs, as a 
punishment for having fought against Escalante. 

If Montezuma was broken, other members of his court were not. Caca- 
matzin, the nephew of Montezuma, realized that the Spaniards had come to 
dispossess his nation and had striven to arouse his people to an effort to drive 
out the Spaniards. He, too, had been made prisoner. But besides the mili- 
tary supremacy that Cortes was fastening upon the Aztecs, there was on his 
part a constant activity in other directions. Montezuma was still a captive, 
but Cortes used his victim to legalize his actions. Five vessels were built, 
to be used on the lakes. The coast was surveyed for about one hundred and 
eighty miles south of Vera Cruz and the site chosen for a fortified post at the 
mouth of the Coatzacoalco River. He obtained land in Oaxaca and established 



THE CONQUEST 33 

a plantation for the crown. He brought his puppet ruler to take the oath of 
allegiance to the Spanish crown and to become a feudatory prince, his oath and 
those of his principal chiefs being duly attested and a record made by the royal 
notary. In pursuance of this scheme, tribute was ordered to be paid to the 
Spaniards and the vast treasure of Axayacatl was bestowed upon them by 
Montezuma. 

All the indignities heaped upon their ruler and all the spoliation suffered 
by the people were unavailing to rouse them to open revolt against their de- 
spoilers. The yoke of the Spaniards seemed to be riveted upon them and Cortes 
may have been satisfied that the prize of Mexico was safely in his grasp. His 
thoughts now turned to the task of overthrowing the superstitious idolatry of 
the Mexicans and erecting in its stead the worship of Christ. With this purpose 
in view, he entered the temples and threw out the idols, and converted one of 
the buildings into a Christian church. This act infuriated the Aztecs and 
Montezuma urged Cortes to seize the opportunity to leave the country, while it 
was possible to get safely away. Such advice fell on unappreciative ears, but 
unwilling to disclose his real intention and desiring to keep his captive tractable, 
Cortes pointed out that he lacked ships, but would endeavor to build some. 

After a brief interval, news arrived of the coming of some Spanish ships to 
Vera Cruz, of which Montezuma learned and he again urged Cortes to take his 
departure. On his part, the conqueror supposed that reinforcements had arrived 
for him as the result of the reports of Puertocarrero and Montejo to their sover- 
eign. The fleet, however, was not so friendly to Cortes; it had been dispatched 
from Cuba, by Velasquez, in order to wrest from him the fruits of his enterprise. 
The reports of the great progress and treasure that Cortes had made and gained 
aroused anew the cupidity and ill-will of the governor and he had determined 
to overthrow his former commander. The new expedition was under the com- 
mand of Pedro de Narvaez and comprised eighteen ships with a force of nine 
hundred men. Arrived at Vera Cruz, Narvaez demanded the submission of 
Sandoval, the commander, to himself as the representative of Velasquez. The 
fearless Sandoval answered the insolently-addressed demand by seizing Nar- 
vaez's emissaries, and sending them to Cortes lashed to the backs of Indian 
carriers, but on their approach to the capital they were released and mounted 
on horses and courteously treated, by order of Cortes. The new situation 
thus presented was most grave and called for extraordinary measures. Leaving 



34 MEXICO 

Alvarado in command at Mexico, Cortes marched against Narvaez with about 
three hundred Spanish troops and a large force of Indians and joined by Sandoval 
and de Leon he surprised and overcame Narvaez at night, capturing him and 
his force. The result increased the troops of Cortes, for most of Narvaez's 
men joined the conqueror and the ships were dismantled. This fortuitous 
event was overshadowed, however, by the news from the interior. 

In the absence of Cortes, Alvarado, whom the Mexicans called Tonatiuh, 
because of his fair complexion, had cruelly massacred hundreds of Mexicans 
of the highest rank in their temple during a war festival, on May 20th. The 
pretext urged by Alvarado for his cruel act was that an attack on the Spaniards 
was planned to follow the feast and that he had merely outwitted them in antici- 
pation, as his leader had done at Cholula. As Cortes returned to the capital 
from his campaign against Narvaez, signs multiplied of the growing unpopu- 
larity of his occupation. Among the tribes, few were friendly, except the 
loyal Tlascalans. His ships on the lake had been destroyed and thus a great 
difficulty, if not an insurmountable one, was opposed to his escape, in case of 
the need of leaving the capital. The people of that place were in full revolt and 
constantly attacking the Spaniards. 

In this crisis, Cortes endeavored to pacify the natives; he released Cuitla- 
huatzin, the brother of Montezuma, whom he had captured earlier with Caca- 
matzin. But for once his course was faulty. Cuitlahuatzin was welcomed by 
the people as the representative of Montezuma. His character was unlike that 
of Montezuma, and instead of giving aid to the Spaniards, he applied all his 
activity and zeal in attempting to overthrow them. Shut within their stone 
palace, the great commander and his companions were attacked by an immense 
host of Aztec warriors who, scorning the destruction of thousands of their number 
by the artillery of the Spaniards, pressed their siege unceasingly until night. 
The next day Cortes sallied out against his assailants, driving them back with 
great slaughter, but in no way breaking their force or weakening the courage 
of the foe. In his extremity, he made use of his captive and, decking him with 
his robes of state, he caused him to mount the central turret of the palace and 
order the people to lay down their arms in accordance with his will. His 
authority evoked no sympathy; his plea that the Spaniards should be allowed 
to depart and his promise of a restoration of the old state of affairs were dis- 
regarded. The people, for an instant manifesting reverence for their ruler, 



THE CONQUEST 



35 



soon became enraged and insulted him. The day, June 27, 1520, was a fateful one. 
An arrow pointed by his nephew, Cuauhtemoc, was the signal for a general attack 
with stones and Montezuma was severely wounded. He died three days later, 
it is claimed, at the hands of the Spaniards, who are also said to have murdered 




XOCHITL PRESENTING THE FIRST PULQUE TO TEPANCALTZIN. 



his nephew, Cacamatzin, and other rulers, besides priests and men of rank whom 
they took prisoners. 

Meantime, the position of the Spaniards was nearly hopeless. The enemy 
had taken a stand on the pyramid of their great temple, whence they could rain 
a tempest of missiles on the quarters of the Spaniards, which must become unten- 
able unless the pyramid was cleared. Inch by inch, Cortes and his men fought 
the Mexicans up the lofty steps to the topmost platform of the pyramid,- where 
the most desperate struggle was continued for three hours till all the natives, 
except two priests, were either killed or had been hurled to the pavement below. 
Then, casting the great idol of Huitzilopochtli to the square below, the Spaniards 



36 MEXICO 

set fire to the temple. The victory was vain, however, for the fate of Cortes's 
enterprise was sealed. Two courses only he saw, escape from the city as best 
he could; or death for himself and his companions. He had failed to beat off 
his assailants by his sorties; they were but more infuriated. 

In the palace of his father, the corpse of Montezuma lay, at midnight, 
while the Spanish priest, Olmeda said the mass for the dead. All preparations 
for flight had been made and hardly had the solemn service been ended before 
the Spaniards filed out of their quarters to take up their march out of the city 
which they had dreamed was their own, and which with most of its treasures 
and the great empire they had hoped to establish they were now relinquishing 
as terrified fugitives; not however, entirely oblivious of gain, for by permission 
the men were to take all the gold they could carry. 

The night march was favored because the Aztecs rarely fought at night, 
and because darkness would serve, in part, to cover the retreat. The once 
proud and victorious soldiers moved forward, still orderly and with discipline. 
Sandoval, Ordaz, and Lujo led with a part of the infantry; Cortes, with the 
artillery, the treasure, the women and the prisoners formed the centre; and with 
him were Olid, Morla and Avila; in the rear were Alvarado and Leon, with the 
main body of the infantry and the heavier guns. Scattered throughout the 
three divisions marched the loyal Tlascalans, who in the darkest hour had never 
failed in loyalty and valor. 

The organization and discipline of the Aztecs find no better illustration 
than in the measures they had taken and in their action on this memorable 
noche triste. The bridges on the canals had been destroyed, and sentinels had 
been carefully posted to give immediate alarm, and the great drum of huehuell 
was served so as to bring the native soldiers in arms instantly on its being 
sounded. 

The night was very dark, a drizzling rain was falling as the heartsick 
Spaniards cautiously proceeded through the silent streets of the city and neared 
the causeway of Tlacopan. No foe had opposed them thus far, but, as they 
were about to retreat along the causeway, sentinels gave the alarm, the dreaded 
sound of the great drum was heard and innumerable warriors attacked the 
Spaniards; they assailed them from canoes, in the streets, from the flat house- 
roofs, — from every direction came the assailants. Plan, purpose and bravery 
combined to make the task of the retreating force almost impossible of execution. 



THE CONQUEST 37 

With the foresight characteristic of Cortes his equipment included a portable 
bridge, but its sufficiency fell short of the present urgency. Fighting with the 
stubbornness of valor and desperation, the first canal was crossed, but its capacity 
gave passage so slowly that before it could be moved forward to the second canal 
the vanguard was attacked savagely. Meantime, the weight of the artillery and 
the troops had forced the bridge into the earth so that it could not be removed. 
The situation was indescribable. Thronging the narrow causeway, surrounded 
by a daring and capable enemy bent on exterminating the Spaniards, trapped 
in fact, escape seemed impossible. 

Desperate men dashed on horseback across the openings in the causeway, 
swam, or passed across on a sinister bridge formed of corpses; but far the greater 
number perished in that fateful hour. No one could tell of the horrors of that 
passage, nor of the heroic bravery of the Spaniards. The great leader, in defeat, 
was the equal of himself in victory. He led the way and had crossed the last 
canal by a ford, but wounded as he was, he returned with a few of his horsemen to 
aid those in the rear. Alvarado, also, was severely wounded, and the story of his 
escape is a favorite one. History has enshrined the legend: he fixed his long 
lance in the bottom of the lake and then vaulted across the breach in the 
causeway. The rear guard of the army returned to their quarters in the city, 
where after a siege of three days they surrendered and were sacrificed on the 
altars of the Aztec gods. The motto that had inspired the conqueror when he 
added it to his standard, bravely adorned with the arms of Charles V. and signed 
with the crimson cross: Amice sequam crucem et nos fidem habemus vere in hoc 
signa vincemus (Friends, let us follow the cross and if we have faith, we shall 
conquer), must have seemed a reproach or a mockery to the Spaniards as they 
fled from the city over the Tlacopan causeway only to meet, most of them, a 
horrible death. 

On legend also must we rely for the statement that on bringing his thinned 
ranks, depleted by five hundred of his brave compatriots and four thousand 
equally brave and loyal Indians, to a native temple on the mainland, Cortes 
rested under a large tree, since called the Tree of La Noche Triste, and shed 
tears as he contemplated the forlorn and desperate state of his soldiers. His 
was not a nature to succumb to defeat. Bereft though he was of some of 
his bravest comrades, of troops, of most of his horses, of all his artillery, 
almost without firearms, and his treasure lost, his plan was ready; he would 



38 MEXICO 

seek a place of safety in TIascala and there define his plans for recovery of 
his position. 

The retreat continued and Otompan, or Otumba, was reached on July 7th. 
The way was there barred by an immense army led by Cihuacoatl. The main 
reliance of the Spaniards was now on the pike and the sabre, with which they 
defended themselves, but so valiant was the defense, and often the attack, that 
after seventy-five days of consecutive fighting, during which terrible carnage 
took place, against inconceivable odds, the Aztecs were put to rout. It is 
believed that final success was due to the bravery and strategy of Cortes, who 
had learned that with the lowering of the banner of their chief, the Mexican 
soldiers would flee. He therefore, supported by Sandoval, Alvarado, Olid, and 
Dominguez, attacked the chief and hurled him to the ground and killed him. 
Thereupon, the army fled, having lost one hundred thousand men, while of the 
Spaniards one hundred and of the allies twenty thousand fell. 

Taking up the march again toward TIascala, not without grave misgiving 
as to the possibility of a reversal of the friendly spirit and fidelity of his allies, 
they reached the capital and were greeted with most friendly welcome. Here, 
Cortes fell a prey to a fever that resulted from the wound he had received on 
the Dismal Night; here, too, he was to learn that the treasure of gold he had 
left behind him when he went on to conquer Tenochtitlan had been taken by the 
Mexicans, who destroyed the messengers bearing it to him. He had also to 
put down the opposition of some of his soldiers who desired to go back to Cuba, 
but having received reinforcements and made gunpowder from the sulphur taken 
from the crater of the great Popocatepetl, he determined to reopen his campaign 
by operations against Tepeaca and took and sacked the capital and established 
the settlement of Segura de la Frontera. 

It was evident to Cortes that his military task was more difficult than at 
first. The new Aztec ruler, Cuitlahuatzin, was of different mould from Monte- 
zuma. The leaders were very able and extremely courageous. Every effort 
had been made by them to displace the loyalty of the native allies, but in this 
they had failed, for their number was increased. Cortes determined that every 
place that lay on the road to Tenochtitlan must be friendly or conquered. 
Betrayed by their cacique, Cuauhquechollan was subdued; Iztocan was taken 
and sacked and a hundred temples given to the flames. Adding further to 
his native forces, and releasing some of the companions of Narvaez, the 



THE CONQUEST 



39 



conqueror completed his plans for the recapture of the Aztec capital, including 
the building of thirteen flat-bottomed boats to be used on Lake Tezcoco. 

Before siege was laid to the capital, the successor of Montezuma died, on 
November 26th, of smallpox, to which thousands of Aztecs had succumbed. 
This scourge was of great service to the Spaniards. The new ruler was Cuauh- 
temoctzin, or Guatemotzin, the nephew and son-in-law of Montezuma. Pre- 
paratory to his final march on Tenochtitlan, 
Cortes formulated a drastic code for the 
regulation of his army and significantly de- 
clared that the pending war and its acquisi- 
tions would be robbery unless its principal 
aim was the conversion of the heathens. 
Thus, with an apparently more serious pur- 
pose than before, the army, with its eight 
thousand carriers, bearing the thirteen 
brigantines, moved on Tezcoco, on Decem- 
ber 28th, and following the most difficult 
route, took it without contest. Establish- 
ing a friendly ruler here, Cortes then took 
Tlacopan and entered the southern border 
of the Valley of Mexico. At this time he 
was captured in the course of a reconnais- 
sance, but was liberated by his soldiers 
before the time of his sacrifice had arrived. 
He was also obliged to quell an insurrection 
in Tezcoco, which aimed at his assassination. 

Cortes was now ready for his attempt 
on Tenochtitlan. His brigantines were 
launched on the lake on April 28th and 

with his army divided into three bodies under Alvarado, Olid, and Sandoval, 
consisting of nine hundred Spaniards, one hundred and twenty-five thousand 
native allies, eighty-seven horses, and with three large and fifteen small guns, 
chiefly disposed throughout the fleet, the march on the capital began on 
May 20th. Cortes took command of the fleet of thirteen brigantines and a 
great number of native canoes. The three commanders occupied, respectively, 




AZTEC IDOL. 



40 MEXICO 

Tlacopan, Coyoacan, and Iztapalapan, which they made their bases of 
operations. In a few days, Cortes had taken several lake positions; the 
capital was completely blockaded; the water supply was also cut off and the 
way was opened for an attack on the city itself. This he succeeded in entering 
and reached the principal square and seized the great temple of the war god, 
withdrawing, however, at nightfall. 

Three days later, being largely reinforced from Tezcoco, he again attacked 
the capital and entered it, setting fire to the palace in which he had formerly 
resided and to Montezuma's aviary. The resistance of the Aztecs was so for- 
midable and their bravery and steadfastness so terrible that the retreat at night 
to camp could be accomplished by Cortes only with great difficulty. But 
little real progress was being made by this method as the enemy destroyed 
the military works of the invaders as soon as the latter had retired. Such 
operations promised little and yielding to the counsel of his lieutenants, Cortes 
decided on making a general attack. 

On June 28th, all plans being communicated to his leaders, an advance 
on the market place of Tlatelolco was ordered. Through a misadventure, the 
forces were separated. Alderete, who had already almost reached the objective 
point, was greeted with the din of the great sacred drum and he was immediately 
attacked by the Aztec hosts. He had omitted to close the breaches in the 
causeway, and the other divisions could not follow. The advance body was 
routed and fled back on the causeway. There with Cortes on the other side 
of the opening, a terrible battle raged. Cortes was wounded and narrowly 
escaped capture, but he rallied the soldiers and led a retreat. Pedro de Alvarado 
and Sandoval, having also nearly reached the market-place, retreated. The 
exultant Aztecs taunted their enemies on their defeat and flung among them 
three dripping heads of Spaniards, shouting as they did so "Malinche" (the 
name they applied to Cortes), " Tonatiuh " (Alvarado), and "Sandoval. " To this 
they added the abominable torture attending their barbarous sacrifices as they 
offered the bodies of their captives on the altars of their demon-gods and feasted 
at a banquet on their corpses at evening. 

This defeat seemed to threaten the destruction of the Spaniards. It is to 
the eternal credit of the native allies that not all the efforts of Guatemotzin 
and his emissaries the priests, nor his threats could undermine their loyalty 
to Cortes. 



THE CONQUEST 41 

Realizing the disadvantages under which he labored by reason of the diffi- 
culty of keeping open the approaches by the causeways, of operating his forces 
and of defending them under these conditions, Cortes developed a new plan 
of attack; he would fill the canals. Accordingly, he led his fighting men and 
utilized the Indian auxiliaries to destroy with hoes every building they reached. 
The great teocalli had been put to the torch; the objective point was at hand. 
Slowly, but steadily, the invaders advanced and the enemy crowded closer and 
closer within narrowing limits, pressed by a determined and relentless foe, and 
ever falling under the combined blows of growing famine, want of water, and 
pestilence. Guatemotzin at first scorned to surrender when called upon to do so; 
then, as the sufferings of the Aztecs grew past endurance, he promised to arrange 
terms, but failed to appear, preferring death. The last shortening of the living 
chain about them had been made; the eager soldiers leaped at the command 
for a general attack, and pouring into the city after his fighting men, the Indians 
fell upon the Aztecs sparing none on that day of fearful revenge and continuing 
the carnage on August 13, 1521. The Aztec chief was captured as he sought 
to escape on a piragua, and was led before the conqueror, from whom he begged 
the boon of death by his dagger, now that he was a prisoner after having done 
all that he could in defence of his country and people. Their leader captive, 
the surviving Aztec warriors submitted and were permitted to leave the capital. 
Tenochtitlan and the Aztec dominion were destroyed. The conqueror left a 
garrison in the city and his victorious forces withdrew to their respective bases 
of operation. The cost of life to the invaders during the almost three months' 
siege was about one-tenth of their strength. 

The victors' joy was tempered with disappointment. The treasure they 
had hoped to find was not forthcoming. Guatemotzin was believed by the 
Spaniards to possess a knowledge of its whereabouts and Cortes ordered him to 
be tortured to extort a revelation which he had declared he could not make. 
He averred that some treasure had been cast into the lake, but like many another 
reputed vast hoard, it was not discovered, in spite of a careful search of the waters 
of Lake Tezcoco. 

Master of the prize that had been won at the cost of many thousands of 
lives, vast treasure and heroic deeds, Cortes decided to reclothe the fallen city 
with the dignity of chief place in the conquered dominions. The aqueduct 
he soon restored and canals were filled and additional causeways built. He was 



42 MEXICO 

as able an administrator as he was a commander. The Indians he had dis- 
possessed were allowed to settle in prescribed districts in the new city. With an 
immense number of Mexicans whose labor he could utilize, the City of Mexico 
soon became a solid and imposing place. 

Not long after the conquest was completed, new troubles arose that 
threatened the power that Cortes had acquired. Velasquez, the governor 
of Cuba had so contrived that the royal government authorized both an investi- 
gation of the conqueror's conduct and the taking over of the government of 
New Spain, but the official sent proved no match for the conqueror and he 
returned to Cuba. Soon thereafter, Charles V. conferred on Cortes the titles 
and powers of governor, captain-general, and chief justice of New Spain. His 
acts confirmed, his companions rewarded, and his dignities established, Cortes 
began to explore and settle the new dominion. On the Pacific he threw out 
the settlement of Zacatula, on the Atlantic, San Estevan, Medellin, and Antigua, 
which latter he projected as the principal port. Regulations were made to en- 
courage the settling of the country and great inducements were offered to those 
who married. In the appropriation of lands, Spaniards only were recognized, 
the natives being held in a condition of slavery, save only the Tlascalans, whose 
loyalty was rewarded by immunity from tribute and the entire control of their 
lands, besides the enjoyment of other privileges and the bestowal of titles of 
distinction on their leaders. Later, their capital became the seat of the first 
bishopric, they elected their alcalde and he became their governor. But no 
honors bestowed on them could repay their services, for without their aid, no 
Spaniard would have survived, no nation would have been possible. 

One of the consequences of the capture of the City of Mexico was the effort 
on the part of the southern provinces of Mexico bordering on Guatemala to 
conciliate the great conqueror and secure his goodwill. These sent ambassa- 
dors laden with gifts of such value that Cortes was fired with the ambition to 
acquire lands on the southern sea, for which purpose he fitted out an expedition 
that soon accomplished its object. This was supplemented by an expedition 
sent in aid of the people of Tehuantepec against the adjoining province of Tutu- 
tepec. This resulted in the invasion of the latter province by Alvarado, its 
defeat and the settlement of Spaniards in the territory; while he proceeded to 
Guatemala and discovering its wealth determined on its conquest when the 
opportunity occurred. Fitting out a strong force, chiefly of natives, Alvarado 



THE CONQUEST 



43 



marched south and was loyally treated by the people of Tehuantepec but 
resisted by those of Soconusco, whom he defeated and thus conquered their 
provinces. He continued 



his march through Guate- 
mala, with which we need 
not here deal, except to say 
that Alvarado remained 
loyal to Cortes, by whom he 
was recommended for the 
governorship of Guatemala. 

During one of his expe- 
ditions, Cortes disposed of 
his faithful friend Marina, 
by gift to a Spanish knight, 
whom she married. Though 
she was endowed with large 
grants of land from the 
government of Spain, her 
abandonment was but a 
mean requital of her affec- 
tion and inestimable ser- 
vices to Cortes and the 

Spanish cause, and the romantic interest associated with "Malinche, " and the 
popularity accorded to her, better measure the appreciation of her services. 

On his return from Honduras, Cortes was received in Mexico with great 
rejoicing by the people, his enemies had been active in Spain and he had been 
accused of aiming at an independent sovereignty. An investigation was com- 
mitted to Juan Ponce de Leon, with the power of governor meantime. His death 
in a few weeks and also that of the successor he named brought the duty to the 
task of Alonso de Estrada, a bitter enemy of Cortes, who was still captain gen- 
eral. Under these circumstances, Cortes determined to appeal in person to his 
sovereign and accordingly sailed from Villa Rica with rich presents and specimens 
characteristic of the flora and fauna of the country. With him were Sandoval 
and Tapia, and two sons of the late Montezuma and Maxixca, and several 
native chiefs. 




BANNER CARRIED BY CORTES. 



44 MEXICO 

Arrived in Spain, he went to the convent of La Rabida, where Sandoval, 
one of his ablest companions, died. The arrival of Cortes created intense inter- 
est and he was accorded the greatest distinction by the sovereign, who conferred 
on him the title of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca and bestowed on him large 
estates in Oaxaca, in Mexico City, and elsewhere. His governorship of New 
Spain was not restored, however, but he was appointed captain general of that 
dominion and empowered to make discoveries and settlements in the southern 
ocean. The conqueror now married a lady of royal blood, Doha Juana de 
Zuniga and in 1530 embarked for Mexico. 

In the closing days of 1527, Charles V. had appointed an audiencia to 
govern New Spain, at the head of which was Nunez de Guzman, governor 
of the Province of Panuco, aided by four oidores. This administration was 
vicious in the extreme; barbaric cruelty was exercised toward the natives, 
who were capriciously murdered and enslaved; charges against Cortes were 
encouraged and considered with foregone determination; the clergy was tyran- 
nized over and abused for their efforts to obtain justice and humane treat- 
ment of the natives; till in 1529, Zumarraga, the first bishop of Mexico, related 
in a letter to Spain the tale of the misdoings of the audiencia. Guzman, 
dreading the exposure of his evil deeds and hoping to avert disaster to him- 
self, set out on December 20, 1529, on an expedition to conquer the province 
of Jalisco, or Amazonas, which had been discovered by Cortes. Guzman, 
during his rule of Panuco, harassed and plundered the native inhabitants with 
utter disregard of even the semblance of justice and descended to acts of 
the most petty despotism. He even caused the Indians to be put to death 
because they had omitted to clean the streets in his path. At the least mani- 
festation of discontent on the part of the Huastecas, during his absence from 
his province as governor of Mexico, he caused whole towns to be subdued by 
force of arms as rebels, and the inhabitants to be sold as slaves, so that this 
monster's cruelty resulted in almost the depopulation of entire districts. Now 
that he was entering on the conquest of Jalisco he raised funds by seizing and 
exporting as slaves the natives of his own province, those who fled in terror 
to the deep forests and mountain fastnesses being pursued by slave-hunting 
parties to take them. 

This inhuman conqueror left a trail of desolation behind him as he marched 
through Michoacan and Nueva Galicia. He tortured and burnt those chiefs 



THE CONQUEST 45 

who could or would not furnish him with gold, or even as a token of his dis- 
pleasure; the chief of the Tarascans of Michoacan, who had manifested the 
extreme of friendliness toward him, stripping himself and his people of all 
their gold and possessions, giving him free passage through his country and 
furnishing him with hosts of burden bearers, was in spite of all, put to daily 
torture and, when this ceased to afford diversion, was then burned. The tyrant 
was fiercely fought in the territory he invaded, but the natives were defeated 
and he founded the cities of Guadalajara and Compostella. During this cam- 
paign, Chirinos, one of Guzman's officers, invaded the Zacatecas, a so-called 
Chichimec tribe. 

The depredations and maladministration of the audiencia did not cease 
even during the absence of Guzman, so that the Crown, forced by the repre- 
sentations of the ecclesiastical authorities, resolved to govern Mexico by a vice- 
roy and appointed Antonio de Mendoza, but displaced the old audiencia and 
appointed another to govern until the arrival of Mendoza in Mexico. 

The royal commission to Cortes to make discoveries was henceforth the sole 
motive of the conqueror's activity in Mexico. He landed at Villa Rica in July, 
1530, and, being forbidden to come within ten miles of the capital until the new 
audiencia was installed, he took up his abode at Tezcoco. He was never again, 
however, to reside permanently in the capital, for he found himself in conflict 
with the new audiencia and withdrew to Cuernavaca, there to manage and cul- 
tivate his estates. 

In 1532, he dispatched an expedition to explore the Pacific coast northward, 
but the fleet was lost. The next year he sent two vessels in the same direction 
one of which in 1534 touched the Peninsula of Lower California, which was 
supposed to be an island. Even such a succession of disasters could not crush 
the spirit of Cortes, who, in 1535, led an expedition which established a colony 
on the eastern shore near the southern extremity of the Peninsula of California, 
but owing to the barrenness of the land it was a failure, the few survivors making 
their way back to Mexico in 1536. In 1539, he sent out another expedition 
under Francisco de Ulloa who, with three ships explored the western coast of 
the same peninsula to about the twentieth parallel of north latitude, or certainly 
as far as Cedros Island. But his adventures were interrupted by the viceroy, 
Mendoza, who had arrived in October, 1535, and who claimed that the right of 
discoveries in the southern ocean was vested in him. 



46 



MEXICO 



Again Cortes left Mexico, in January, 1540, to seek redress at the Court of 
Spain, but his efforts were without success. He enlisted to fight against the 
Moors at Algiers; then returned to Spain, where, after much discouragement 
and even, it is said, contempt, he finally obtained permission from Charles V. 
to return to Mexico. He died, however, near Seville, on December 2, 1547, 
on his return journey to the magnificent land that he had conquered and added 
to the dominions of Spain, with all its limitless resources, rich in all that country 
needed to support its tottering power and for a time to restore and even to in- 
crease its former greatness. 




PORT MARQUEZ WHERE CORTES BUILT HIS FLEET FOR A VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY ON THE PACIFIC. 




CARVINGS OF THE TIME OF THE VICEROYS. THE CHURCH OF SANTA ROSA, QUERETARO. 




BURNING OF THE FEET OF CUAUHTEMOC AND HIS GENERAL TO FIND THEIR HIDDEN TREASURE. 



CHAPTER 



VICEROYALTY 



THE old order had passed. On the ruins of the Aztec dominion was estab- 
lished a military government, a sort of proprietary dominion; to this 
succeeded a short-lived civil government by commissioners; then came the final 
stage of Mexico's dependency and provincial government under a viceroy. These 
successive governments saw in the great dominion only a field for the exploita- 
tion of riches for their sovereign's use and their own. The natives of the country 
had been ruthlessly despoiled of their possessions and to a large degree enslaved 
by the Spaniards; they had no rights save such as their masters might arbitrarily 
grant. Except for the noble protection and kindness of Las Casas and the mis- 
sionaries, their lot had been hopeless indeed. The first viceroy, Don Antonio de 
Mendoza, Conde de Tendilla, arrived in Mexico on October 15, 1535. As 
before said, his authority soon clashed with that of Cortes. He was a man of 
superior parts and great probity and earnestly strove to direct the province 
of New Spain in the path of progress and stability. Among the enlightened 

measures of his administration was the introduction of the printing press, and 

49 



50 MEXICO 

in 1537 appeared La Escala de San Juan Climaco, a Latin work translated by 
Fra Juan de Madalena. The establishment of a mint for the coinage of silver 
money was another important work, inasmuch as the natives had become opposed 
to the copper coin, of which they had cast some two hundred thousand pesos 
in value into the lake. The viceroy also founded a college for Indian nobles at 
Tlatelolco and with a spirit of consideration for the natives he caused the hated 
Nunez de Guzman, who as president of the first audiencia had been guilty of 
great cruelty and greed, to be cast into the common jail. Under his direction, 
Coronado led the expedition to the fabled Quivira in the northeast, the Eldorado 
of the north, the "Seven Cities of Cibola," so wonderfully described to De Vaca 
by the Indians. The town of Guadalajara was founded in New Galicia; and 
Valladolid in 1541 ; this latter, in 1828, was named Morelia in honor of the patriot 
Morelos. During his rule, the famous Mixton War occurred in the new province 
of New Galicia and was finally suppressed by Ohate aided by the viceroy. 

The period was marked by the introduction of the benign measures known as 
the "New Laws," promulgated by Charles V. in 1542, chiefly at the instance 
and through the exertion of the Indian-loving Bartolome de las Casas. The 
intent of these laws was to prohibit absolutely further enslavement of the natives 
and, as far as practicable, to give freedom to those already slaves, but their 
enforcement was found to be impracticable. 

In 1545, an appalling epidemic spread among the natives, of whom eight 
hundred thousand were said to have perished. During this period the viceroy 
Mendoza unremittingly cared for the sick and earned the proud and affectionate 
title of "Father of the poor." The justice of his rule won the loyalty of the 
natives to the crown, and during the insurrection of Pizarro the emperor con- 
ferred on the former Tenochtitlan the title of muy noble insigne y leal. In 
1551, Mendoza was rewarded for his excellent administration by transfer to 
the government of turbulent Peru. 

Don Luis de Velasco succeeded in November, 1551, as the second viceroy 
of New Spain. He directed assiduously the enforcement of the "New Laws" 
and in this succeeded measurably, earning for himself the title of "the Emanci- 
pator, " as he liberated from the mines one hundred and'sixty thousand Mexicans, 
whose freedom he said, "was more important than all the mines in the world, 
and that the revenues derived therefrom by the crown were not of such a nature as 
to defy the laws of God and man. " In 1551, the University of Mexico was created 



VICEROY A LTY 



51 



and in 1553, was founded. Velasco died in Mexico in 1564, and was interred 

there with great pomp and honor in appreciation of his able administration. 
Martin Cortes, the second 

Marques del Valle, who had left 

New Spain with his father when 

eight years old, now returned to 

Mexico, enriched by profit in the 

service of the king, and sought to 

enjoy his hereditary possessions 

and honors. His arrival, in 1563, 

was attended with great splendor, 

and his state and pretensions gave 

offence to the viceroy, although 

no serious trouble had occurred 

during his lifetime. 

The third viceroy, Gaston de 

Peralta, Marques de Fakes, ar- 
rived during the investigation of 

the charges against Martin Cortes 

and his friends. He found no 

proof of conspiracy, stopped the 

proceedings and released most of 

the prisoners and commuted the 

death sentence passed on Luis 

Cortes to ten years' service in 

Africa and loss of property; he 

sent the Marques to Spain. This 

procedure enraged the members 

of the audiencia and they accused 

the viceroy of favoring the conspiracy and sought his recall. A commission sent 

by the king to investigate determined on the prosecution of all traitors and four 

were executed, while Martin Cortes, son of Marina, was tortured and then exiled. 

The ordinary jails were insufficient to hold the victims of the persecution; the 

viceroy was deposed. But so exceedingly cruel and arbitrary was the action 

of the persecutor that he was himself deposed in 1568, and the viceroy was 




DOOR OF THE HOUSE OF CONDE DE SANTIAGO. 



52 MEXICO 

exonerated of all blame. This extraordinary and romantic affair ended, after a pro- 
tracted trial, in the restoration to the Marques of his confiscated property in 1574. 

During the term of the fourth viceroy, Martin Enriquez de Almanza, the 
scourge of the Spanish Inquisition was established in Mexico under the direction 
of Pedro Moya de Contreras, later Archbishop of Mexico and viceroy of New 
Spain. Nominally, this institution was introduced in 1529, by a council con- 
sisting of the audiencia and the heads of the Franciscan and Dominican orders, 
but its official establishment was not made until later. In 1572, the Jesuits 
settled in the province and founded their first college in the City of Mexico, 
which was devoted to the education of the Spanish Americans and to the con- 
version of the natives. La Caridad de San Hipolito was another institution 
founded under this administration; its purposes were wholly charitable. 

Little worthy of note occurred, for strife between the audiencia and the 
viceroys had become chronic, and government was paralyzed, until the adminis- 
tration of the eighth viceroy, Luis de Velasco, son of the second viceroy, in 1590. 
Having resided for some time in New Spain he was familiar with conditions 
and as he was very popular the progress of the province was marked, particu- 
larly in the direction of manufactures and the embellishment of the capital. 
His successor, Gaspar de Zuhiga y Acevedo, Conde de Monterey, appointed in 
1595, continued the territorial extension in New Mexico and accomplished the 
conquest of that territory by the expedition under Onate in 1599. The domain 
was further extended into California as the result of explorations of Sebastian 
Vizcaino, who discovered the Bay of Monterey and founded the town of that 
name. A town of the same name was also founded in Nuevo Leon. The old 
city of Vera Cruz was removed to its present site, that first chosen by Cortes for 
Villa Rica. This viceroy did much to allay the discontent of the natives owing 
to their having been gathered in the towns, the better to secure the exaction of 
tribute from them. 

Already, ere the close of the century of conquest, had been sown the seeds 
of discord between the Creoles and the Spaniards. The latter enjoyed the chief 
profits and honors of public office and life. The result of this policy was a 
growing antagonism which, in a little more than two centuries was to wrest the 
country from the foreigner and give its benefits to the native born. 

In 1604, during the rule of Juan Manuel Hurtado de Mendoza y Luna, 
Marques de Montesclaros, the capital suffered from a terrible inundation. 



VICEROY ALTY 53 

The second term of Luis de Velasco the eleventh viceroy is noteworthy 
for the construction of the great Huehuetoca Tunnel to protect the capital from 
inundation by drawing the water from Lake Zumpango. This formidable 
engineering work was planned by Enrico Martinez, an engineer of Dutch 
birth but educated in Spain, with the cooperation of Juan Sanchez, a Jesuit 
mathematician. The work, however, was soon superseded in favor of the ancient 
dike system, on the advice of Adrian Boot, the famous Dutch engineer. During 
this administration the Alameda was established, so called because first planted 



~#*" 




SACRIFICIAL STONE. 



with alamos. A revolt of the negroes in the district of Vera Cruz occurred in 
1609, and only after severe fighting in the mountains was it overcome. The 
defeated blacks then formed a settlement in San Lorenzo. 

The twelfth viceroy was Fray Garcia Guerra, Archbishop of Mexico. His 
administration was cut short by his death through a fall from his carriage. 
Noteworthy is a mission to Japan undertaken by Sebastian Vizcaino, accom- 
panied by Fray Pedro Bautista, but the ambassadors received scant courtesy, 
in spite of the many perils they suffered. 

The founding of the important towns of Lerma and Cordova in 1613 and 
1618 and the extension of the aqueduct to Santa Isabella were accomplished 
during the term of Diego Fernandez de Cordova, Marques de Guadalcazar. 



54 



MEXICO 




PALACE OF ITURBIDE, NOW A FAMOUS OLD HOTEL. 



He was succeeded by Diego Carrillo de Mendoza y Pimental, Marques de Galves 
and Conde de Priego, as fourteenth viceroy. His administration was marked by 

sincere effort to pre- 
vent and correct 
abuses and dishon- 
esty among public 
officials. A strug- 
gle began between 
church and state. 
He was soon at 
odds with Arch- 
bishop Juan Perez 
de la Serna, who ex- 
communicated the 
viceroy. The papal 
delegate, however, 

ordered this ban removed, but the Archbishop refused; in consequence a decree 
of fine and banishment was issued against him. Still resisting, the Archbishop 
was forcibly taken to the coast for banishment, but on his way having learned 
that the audiencia had repented and ordered his return to the capital on the 
ground of irregularity in the proceedings, he took refuge in a church and defied 
his guards to lay hands on him. Finally, the people of San Juan Teotihuacan 
liberated him. A riot of perilous portent broke out in the capital and notwith- 
standing that the viceroy consented to recall Serna, the viceregal palace was 
besieged and set on fire, the viceroy escaping to a convent. The triumph of this 
headstrong churchman was complete. On the arrival of the fifteenth viceroy, 
Rodrigo Pacheco y Osorio, Marques de Cerralvo, the inquisitor formally rein- 
stated Galves and removed his name from the excommunication tablet and he 
entered Mexico in triumph. His enemy the Archbishop went to Spain whither, 
after the investigation of his government had resulted in honorable credit to him, 
Galves followed. In 1628, the Dutch admiral, Pieter Heyne captured a treas- 
ure fleet bearing bullion and other valuables from New Spain to the mother 
country, of a value of twelve million pesos. As a result of this, a squadron 
called the Barlovento (Windward) was formed to protect the Gulf of Mexico 
and the West Indies. 



VICEROY A LTY 



55 



A noteworthy feature of the administration of the seventeenth viceroy, 
the Marques de Villena and Duque de Escalona, who was of an illustrious Portu- 
guese family, was his removal from office on a charge of plotting against his 
king in favor of the Portuguese, who had revolted against Spain. The viceroy 
was later exonerated from this charge. Escalona was succeeded as eighteenth 
viceroy, by Palafox, Bishop of Puebla. Though an able administrator, his zeal 
in the conversion of the Indians to Christianity led him to destroy many price- 
less statues and idols of the Aztec period, the loss of which has proved of serious 
consequence to succeeding generations. During the administration of the Bishop 
of Yucatan, Marcos de Torres y Rueda, the twentieth viceroy, a dreadful auto 
de fe was ordered, of which there were one hundred and seven victims. 




STATUE OF CHARLES IV. 



New Mexico was colonized and the town of Albuquerque founded during 
the term of the twenty-second viceroy, Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva, 
Duque de Albuquerque. In 1665, during the rule of Antonio Sebastian de 



56 



MEXICO 



Toledo, Marques de Mancera, the great Popocatepetl erupted during four days, 
and two years later a severe earthquake occurred. In 1668, the cathedral of 

the City of Mexico was dedicated 
the second time in celebration 
of the completion of the interior; 
its earlier dedication having taken 
place in 1657. Under the wise 
and beneficent progressive rule of 
Fray Payo Enriquez de Rivera, 
Archbishop of Mexico, the twenty- 
seventh viceroy, the causeway and 
aqueduct of Guadalupe were con- 
structed and the coinage of gold 
was first undertaken in New 
Spain. 

During the administration of 
the Marques de la Laguna, the 
twenty-eighth viceroy, from 1680 
to 1686, Vera Cruz was taken by 
surprise by a band of six hundred 
pirates under Nicolas Agramonte 
who committed great ravages, 
over three hundred persons losing 
their lives and six thousand being 
imprisoned in the church for five days without food. The twenty-ninth viceroy, 
Melchor Portocarrero Lazo de la Vega, Conde de Monclova made his admin- 
istration memorable by the construction, at his own cost, of the aqueduct of 
Chapultepec. He also colonized Coahuila and founded the town of Monclova. 
He is called "the man with the silver arm," because of a silver substitute for 
an arm he lost in battle. 

The chief event during the reign of the next viceroy, Gaspar de la Cerda 
Sandoval Silva y Mendoza, Conde de Galve, the thirtieth viceroy, who ruled 
from 1688 to 1696, was the extension of the domain of New Spain to the east, 
including Texas. He sent an expedition in 1689, under Alonso de Leon, gov- 
ernor of Coahuila to dislodge the French, who were supposed to have founded a 




CARVINGS ON THE CHURCH OF LA SANTISIMA. 



I'ICEROYALTY 



57 



settlement under La Salle, and in 1690 a mission was established near the Neches 
River, in Texas. In addition, in 1691, explorations in the interior and on the 
coast were made and in 1693, a town and fort were established at Pensacola, 
the former being called Santa Maria and the bay was named Santa Maria de 
Galves, after Bernardo de Galves. 

In 1696, the thirty-second viceroy, Jose Sarmiento Valladares, Conde de 
Montezuma y Tula, whose wife, Geronima Maria, was a lineal descendant of 
the last Aztec ruler, succeeded to the government of New Spain. Toward the 
close of his rule the conflict over the Spanish succession arising out of the death 
of Charles II., in 1700, seriously involved the affairs of Mexico. The treasure 
ships from New Spain were prizes eagerly sought by the league of powers seeking 
the overthrow of the Bourbons, and in 1702, the fleet of such ships that had 
sailed from Vera Cruz with treasure valued at fifty million pesos was attacked 
and destroyed in the Port of Vigo, 

in Spain, and to avoid the capture — ^^ 

of the treasure it was cast into the 
sea. This viceroy was removed be- 
cause of his suspected disloyalty to 
the Bourbons. During the adminis- 
tration of the thirty-fourth viceroy, 
Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva, 
Duque de Albuquerque and Mar- 
ques de Cuellar, who assumed a 
magnificence of pomp and ceremony 
that even surpassed the custom of 
kings and emperors, a special tribu- 
nal was created, the acordada, for 
the punishment of robbers and brig- 
ands and its severe decrees accom- 
plished much good. 

During the rule of the Marques 
de Valero, Duque de Arion, viceroy 
from 1716 to 1722, an aqueduct was 

constructed to supply Queretaro with water. His successor, Juan de Acuha, 
Marques de Casafuerte, effected important reforms and works of great public 




IDOLS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. 



58 



MEXICO 




FOUNTAIN IN MEXICO CITY. 



utility. Such was the esteem in which he was held that he is called the "great 
governor. " During his rule the Gaceta de Mexico was published. Under Pedro 

Cebrian y Augustin, Conde de 
Fuenclara, 1742 to 1746, the colo- 
nization of the State of Tamauli- 
pas was effected. A noteworthy 
incident was the arrest of the 
Italian, Lorenzo Boturini, who 
had contributed valuable data to 
the history of Mexico, for not ob- 
taining the sanction of the Council 
of the Indies preparatory to mak- 
ing a collection for providing a 
costly crown for the Lady of 
Guadalupe. His manuscript was taken from him and he was sent to Spain. 
In 1743, the British fleet, under Admiral Anson, captured a Spanish galleon 
bound from the Philippines. 

During the rule of Joaquin de Montserrat, Marques de Cruillas, the first 
regular army in Mexico was established. He also instituted the numbering 
of all the houses in the capital. During the term of this viceroy, Spain acquired 
(1762) from France, by the secret treaty of Fontainebleau, the Province of 
Louisiana on the right bank of the Mississippi and the City of New Orleans on 
the left bank. The possession of this province was regarded as of great import- 
ance to Mexico as a barrier between her and the British possessions. In 1763, 
Spain ceded to Great Britain the territory known as West Florida. 

The noteworthy events of the government of Carlos Francisco de Croix, 
Marques de Croix, whose rule extended from 1766 to 1771, were the expulsion 
of the Jesuits, among whom was the historian Clavigero, and the confiscation 
of their property, and the extension of the Alameda to its present area. 

In 1771, Antonio Bucareli y Urzua succeeded as the forty-sixth viceroy 
and ruled till 1779. Under his able care the industry and commerce of New 
Spain greatly developed, and new and important works were established. At 
his personal cost, he completed the aqueduct of Chapultepec which had been 
commenced by the Conde de Monclova; the Monte pio was founded, under 
the charge of Romero Terreros, Conde de Regla, who endowed it with three 



VICEROY ALTY 59 

hundred thousand pesos and stipulated that loans to the poor should bear no 
interest. Many hospitals and asylums for the poor were also established and a 
foundling asylum at La Cuna through the benevolence of Archbishop Lorenzana. 
No wise work for the good of Mexico was ignored by him. He edited the letters 
of Hernan Cortes. He encouraged mining and extended the operations of the 
mint. In the great church at Guadalupe a bronze tablet in the floor marks the 
resting place of the good viceroy Bucareli. So highly was he esteemed also by 
the king that his salary was largely increased and, still more noteworthy, no 
residencia, or investigation, of his administration was held at his death. 

Martin de Mayorga, the forty-seventh viceroy, entered on office in 1779. 
Of his civil services it is to be noted that he founded the San Carlos Academy 
of Fine Arts. 

The aspirations of Matias de Galvez were realized in 1783, when he suc- 
ceeded as the forty-eighth viceroy; but he lived only a few months. His son 
Bernardo was next appointed; his popularity in Louisiana was fully equaled 
in Mexico. Amongst his popular measures was the building of the palace of 
Chapultepec at a cost of three hundred thousand pesos; and his aid during a 
famine, when he labored personally to ascertain the actual wants of the sufferers 
and supplied them largely out of his private means. So great was his popularity 
that some suspected him of aiming at an independent sovereignty, but this 
suspicion was not entertained by his king or the audiencia. His death in 1786, 
at thirty-eight, called forth general manifestation of the affection in which he 
was held and great honors were paid to his memory, his posthumous daughter 
being christened with great pomp and having as sponsors the "most noble" 
City of Mexico. 

In 1789, Juan Vicente de Guemes Pacheco de Padilla, Conde de Revilla- 
gigedo, succeeded as fifty-second viceroy; he was the second Conde de Revilla- 
gigedo and the son of the forty-first viceroy. His rule was one of active reforms 
in administration. The City of Mexico was paved and lighted, a sewerage 
system and fire brigades and a police force were established. Free public schools 
were provided for children of both sexes and the famous College of Mining was 
opened. He relentlessly pursued and executed bandits; cleansed the city 
thoroughly; and caused a census to be taken of the intendencia of Mexico in 
1790, when the population was shown to be over one million five hundred 
thousand, and of the capital nearly one hundred and thirteen thousand. He sent 



60 



MEXICO 



out several exploring expeditions, one of which reached within the confines of 
Alaska. So thorough was his government that he sought to inform himself of 
every detail and in order to learn of any abuses, he provided a letter box in one 
of the halls of the palace, in which the public might deposit written statements 

of complaint or suggestion. So active 
had been this viceroy's administra- 
tion that the ancient city of the 
Aztecs had become by the close of 
the eighteenth century a beautiful 
modern city. Yet in spite of all his 
labors, he was removed from office in 
1794 and died under the cloud of 
royal displeasure. Only after his 
death was his true merit recognized 
and honors were showered on his 
descendants. 

Miguel de la Grua Talamanca, 
Marques de Branciforte, succeeded 
' in 1794 as the fifty-third viceroy. 
He was a brother-in-law of Manuel 
Godoy, Prince of Peace, the favorite 
of Charles IV., and was, consequently, 
in much favor with the king, who 
heaped honors upon him. He recip- 
rocated the royal favor to the utmost 
of his power. He caused to be erected 
the splendid bronze equestrian statue 
of Charles IV. in the Paseo, the work 
of the celebrated Mexican sculptor, Manuel Tolsa, of which Humboldt said that, 
"except the statue of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome, there was nothing of the kind 
in Europe to equal it in beauty and purity of design. " Viceroy Branciforte was 
too much of a courtier to administer his government in the interest of the people 
of Mexico, but he actively sought to aggrandize his own possessions. He con- 
fiscated the property of Frenchmen residing in Mexico and in Louisiana, and 
when he left his government in 1798 he took with him an immense treasure. 




STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC. 



VICEROY ALTY 61 

During his administration that part of Florida west of the Perdido River was 
ceded to France. 

The fifty-fourth viceroy, Miguel Jose de Azanza, ruled New Spain from 
1798 to 1800 with ability and justice, but the spirit of the revolution was hover- 
ing over Mexico and he had to put down a conspiracy to expel the Spaniards or 
gachupines from the province, which broke out in 1799. This conspiracy is 
known as the ''machete," from the name given to the sabres used by the con- 
spirators, who, though insignificant in number, represented a rapidly extending 
antagonism of long standing, between the Creoles and the Spaniards, which was 
soon to burst forth in an inconquerable flame. The noteworthy act of Felix 
Berenguer de Marquina the fifty-fifth viceroy, from 1800 to 1803, was his effort 
to put an end to the bull-fight. On his forbidding this pastime, and being in- 
formed that the municipal government could not meet the deficiency caused by 
the cost of the viceroy's reception unless the profits of a bull-fight were forth- 
coming, the viceroy covered the amount, seven thousand pesos, out of his 
private purse. 

Jose de Iturrigaray succeeded in 1803. In 1802, Spain and France signed 
the definitive treaty by which the former ceded Louisiana to France, and in 
1803, Napoleon sold the Province to the United States, notwithstanding the 
stipulations of the treaty with Spain. Spain allied with France against England 
and at the battle of Trafalgar her fleet and that of her ally were almost totally 
destroyed and fears were entertained that an attack on Vera Cruz by the English 
would follow. In 1808, owing to the weak conduct of Charles IV. in respect 
of the designs of Napoleon he was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son 
Ferdinand. Quarrels and misunderstandings finally resulted in Napoleon's 
putting his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne, but not without 
intense and heroic resistance from the Spaniards, and only to be expelled in 
1814. The news of the surrender of the Spanish crown to Napoleon bitterly 
incensed the people of New Spain, and on July 19, 1808, the municipal authorities 
of Mexico City petitioned Viceroy Iturrigaray not to recognize any foreign 
authority or Spanish authorities if controlled by foreigners, and asserted that, 
in the absence of a legitimate sovereign, the power resided in the people. This 
latter claim was espoused by the Creoles and the viceroy, but was as strongly 
opposed by the official Spanish party and the heads of the Church and the 
Inquisition as seditious and heretical. For this leaning toward the native claim, 



62 



MEXICO 



the viceroy became suspected by the Spanish party and on September 15, 1808, 
he was clandestinely seized, sent a prisoner to the Island of San Juan de Ulua 
and thence to Cadiz. 

Pedro de Garibay was the next viceroy. He was elected mainly by the 
Chaquetas, who were the volunteers of Fernando Septimo, and who had captured 
Iturrigaray at the viceregal palace. The viceroy was merely the tool of the 
Spanish party in ordering the secret execution of the Licenciado Verdad, who, 
as head of the municipality of Mexico City had proposed a provisional govern- 
ment for New Spain at a junta held on August 9th. Verdad is regarded as the 
first martyr for Mexican independence. 

The Spanish junta at Aranjuez, which was then recognized in Mexico, 
appointed the Archbishop of Mexico, Francisco Xavier Lizana y Beaumont 
viceroy. He was succeeded by Francisco Xavier Venegas, the fifty-ninth vice- 
roy, who was appointed by the Spanish regency. His rule was not effective, 
the spirit of independence was strengthening; nor did the decree issued in Spain 
in 1809, recognizing the West Indian possessions as an integral part of the mon- 
archy, avail to check the nascent national movement, particularly as the Creoles 
were discriminated against in the matter of representation in the cortes. 




OLD CARVING OF THE TIME OF CORTES. 




GATEWAY AT THE MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC. 

CHAPTER III 

THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



IT was not until the various colonies to the north of them had achieved their 
independence, and had come to be known as a new nation, the United States 
of America, that the Mexicans began to indulge the spirit of patriotism and the 
desire for independence which are implanted by nature in every human breast. 
Other patriots had succeeded in establishing their rights to freedom and its 
privileges, why not they ? 

As the years went on, this restless desire for liberty grew among the patriots 
of Mexico. The fruits, the wealth, the prodigal bounty of the country were 
theirs, they felt, by inheritance; why should they go to enrich the coffers of a 
foreign country while they were kept here in poverty and oppression ? In 1798, 
the Spanish viceroy began to discover signs of the uprising that broke out with 

such force a few years later, under the noble Hidalgo. Even then the Mexicans 

65 



66 MEXICO 

had decided in their secret hearts that Mexico should no longer be New Spain 
either in name or in fact. She should be free. She should govern her own coun- 
try and worship in her own church. She should come into her own Kingdom of 
Liberty. 

It was a bloody struggle and one that was several times repeated ere 
the victory was gained and Mexico became firmly established as one of the 
republics of the world. 

Hidalgo and his patriots made a noble fight, but internal dissensions and 
foreign invasions followed; the valuable mines, sacked for centuries by other 
rulers, had to be abandoned, and the tillable lands were left untouched. The 
patriots were fighting in the cause of honor and trying to wrest the crown of 
liberty from their oppressors, while starvation stared them in the face. It 
is always so in a desperate revolution. Liberty is to be won only by the sacri- 
fice of many human lives. 

And so the older patriots fought, bled, and died for their country, while 
their places were taken by younger men who continued the battle for progress 
and freedom, and only the Indians of the mountain fastnesses were left free 
from care or ambitions. 

Mexico's history has been singularly cursed by the greed of gold and lust 
of power on the part of foreign potentates. Her inexhaustible treasures have, 
in past ages, been to her, in a sense, a curse rather than a blessing; since it was 
only the greed of gold which brought the cruel, grinding oppressor, who for 
centuries kept her under the iron heel of the conquerors. While Mexico waited, 
many a less favored settlement rose to the distinction of a nation, and smaller 
colonies rose to proud prominence. 

But Mexico was oppressed and despoiled in vain. Slowly, perhaps, her 
courage rose to the point of resistance, but when the day of struggle came her 
spirit was indomitable. Beaten repeatedly, thrust down from temporary 
acquisitions more than once, she knew not the meaning of the word defeat. 
Again and again she rose fresh from discouragement; and with a persistence 
that was almost divine, and a courage that comes only from the God of Liberty, 
cried, undismayed, "Mexico shall be free! Mexico shall take her place among 
the independent nations of the earth!" 

In 1809, an independent plot had been born in Valladolid, in Michoacan, 
and in the next year the revolutionists directed their plans from the town of 



THE BATTLE TOR INDEPENDENCE 



67 



Queretaro. The chief guide in the incipient movement was Ignacio Allende, 
who, in cooperation with the licenciados Parra, Laso and Altamirano, and the 
captains Aldama and Arias, the lieutenants 
Lanzagorta, Epigmenio and Emeterio Gon- 
zalez, officers in the Queen's dragoons, estab- 
lished a junta in Queretaro. The plan was 
to seize the leading Spaniards in the chief 
towns and thereupon to proclaim the inde- 
pendence of Mexico, with a government 
ruling in the name of Ferdinand VII., inde- 
pendent of Spanish authorities. In 1810, 
the leader of the revolutionists was the noble 
patriot cur a Hidalgo, who was in charge of 
the parish of Dolores, in Guanajuato. The 
plan was for a general uprising on Decem- 
ber 8, 1810, when the great fair of San Juan 
de los Lagos would begin, but through the 
treachery of some of their comrades at 
Guanajuato, and by Captain Arias at Quere- hidalgo. 

taro, their plan was untimely precipitated, 

and several arrests were made at Queretaro on September 13th, including the 
brothers Gonzalez. Warning of this was conveyed to the friends at San Miguel, 
and the news of the arrests at Queretaro was brought to Hidalgo at Dolores, who 
realizing the extremity of the situation exclaimed : "Gentlemen, we are lost ; there 
is no other recourse but to seize the gachupines." The people of Dolores were 
aroused; at early mass on that Sunday morning, Hidalgo urged them to defend 
their rights against the usurped dominion of the French. They seized the principal 
Spaniards in the town; the priest was acclaimed their leader and by noon of the 
same day a small patriot army, badly equipped, but very enthusiastic, marched on 
San Miguel under the lead of Hidalgo and Allende. On the march, they stopped 
at the sanctuary of Atotonilco, where taking from the altar the banner of the 
Virgin of Guadalupe, Hidalgo raised it as the patriot standard and uttered 
the grito de Dolores: " Viva nuestra Senora de Guadalupe; mueran los gachupines \" 
Arriving at San Miguel, Allende's regiment joined Hidalgo's force and the 
combined army marched on Guanajuato, gathering strength as it proceeded. 




68 



MEXICO 



At Celaya, the troops guarding the town abandoned it and Hidalgo entered on 
September 21st, after threatening with death the Spanish prisoners if the place 
was not surrendered. The patriot army now numbered fifty thousand, and it 
proclaimed Hidalgo captain-general of America, and Allende lieutenant-general. 
On to Guanajuato, with momentarily increasing force, the patriots moved. 
This important city contained considerable treasure, but through fear of the 
people the intendente hesitated to defend it and retired to the Alhondiga de 
Granaditas, or granary, with his soldiers, where he was attacked by the patriots 
on September 28th and killed. The treasure seized amounted in value to three 

million pesos, and the city, as was 
the case at Celaya, was pillaged, 
though Hidalgo exerted himself to 
the utmost to prevent such excess. 
Viceroy Venegas now recog- 
nized the formidable character of 
the revolution and took energetic 
steps to quell it. Volunteer troops 
were enlisted. A price of ten thou- 
sand pesos was put on the head of 
each of the leaders of the revolu- 
tion; Hidalgo and his followers 
were excommunicated, and the 
Inquisition cited the patriot priest 
to answer charges of heresy and 
apostasy. Valladolid (Morelia) 
was occupied, without resistance, 
by the patriots, who emancipated 
slaves and abolished tribute pay- 
ment. With his funds greatly 
increased in this town, Hidalgo 
prepared to march on the capital 
with an army, or perhaps more 
truly a rabble, of eighty thousand 
men. At this time he was proclaimed generalissimo with Allende as captain- 
general and Aldama, Ballerza, Jimenez and Joaquin Arias, lieutenant-generals. 




JOSE MARIA MORELOS. 



THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



69 




THE PRISON IN WHICH HIDALGO WAS CONFINED 
AT CHIHUAHUA. 



General Torcuato Trujillo was sent with three thousand men to oppose 
Hidalgo's way to the capital and the armies met at Las Cruces, about twenty 
miles from the capital, on October 
30, 1810. The conflict was bitter, 
the greater number of the patriots 
being more than offset by the 
superior equipment and discipline 
of the royalists, who were equip- 
ped with artillery. In the capi- 
tal, the viceroy, alarmed at the 
strength of the revolutionists, 
contemplated the removal of the 
government to Vera Cruz, but 
finally decided to remain and 
defend it. He secured the image of the Virgin de los Remedios from Totoltepec 
and enshrined it in the cathedral of the capital and with much ceremony hailed 
it as "lady captain-general of the army. " As a counteraction to that of Hidalgo, 
he adopted a sacred banner bearing the image of Nuestra Senora de los Remedios. 
Vigorous steps were taken by the viceroy to meet the perilous situation and 
defend the capital. 

Meantime, Hidalgo on his retreat to Queretaro encountered Calleja at 
Aculco, where he was put to rout on November 7th, and fell back to Valladolid. 
On November 26th, he entered Guadalajara to join the revolutionary force under 
Torres, who had defeated the royalists at Zacoalco. In Guadalajara a govern- 
ment was established with Ignacio Lopez Rayon and Jose Maria Chico as chief 
ministers. Here, as in the Province of Guanajuato, Hidalgo decreed the emanci- 
pation of slaves and abolished the tribute. At Guanajuato, whither Allende had 
retired after the battle of Las Cruces, the royalist army, under Calleja and Flon, 
attacked the patriots on November 25th and forced them to retreat. Before 
the royalist generals entered the town the people forced an entrance into the 
Alhondiga and massacred one hundred and thirty-eight Spanish prisoners confined 
there, an act that Calleja terribly avenged soon by the promiscuous slaughter 
of inhabitants followed by the execution of forty-one prominent residents. 

The viceroy now put General Jose de la Cruz, who had just arrived from Spain, 
at the head of the royal forces. After capturing Valladolid, de la Cruz marched 



70 MEXICO 

against Hidalgo at Guadalajara, but was intercepted by Colonel Ruperto Mier 
about twelve miles from Zamora and defeated him, but the delay prevented 
him from joining Calleja in time to participate against Hidalgo at the Bridge 
of Calderon, on January 17, 1811, where the patriot forces, under Allende, who 
had made his way to Zacatecas and thence to Guadalajara after his defeat at 
Guanajuato, joined Hidalgo's half-clad, ill-disciplined force of eighty thousand 
men. The infantry were armed with the sling and the bow and there were less 
than a hundred cannon, many of which were of wood bound with hoops of iron, 
while only a few of the cavalry had sabres. This poor army, rich only in faith 
and patriotism, took up a strong position at the Bridge of Calderon and awaited 
the attack of the royalist forces under Calleja and Flon, numbering six thou- 
sand well-disciplined infantry and cavalry, with ten pieces of artillery. The 
battle ended in the utter defeat of the patriots with immense loss. 

The patriot force dispersed, the Province of New Galicia must be pacified. 
Hidalgo was now forced to resign his office of generalissimo in favor of Allende 
whose military qualities were regarded by the leaders as superior to those of 
Hidalgo. Allende went to the aid of Jimenez at Saltillo, who had secured some 
slight victories over the royalists, but flight seemed the best course for the 
leaders and their cause and they went north in the hope of reaching the United 
States both for safety and aid. After many dramatic victories and some dis- 
appointments, the strength of the Mexicans seemed to grow, when the Father 
of his Country's Independence, Hidalgo, was betrayed to the enemy by a Span- 
iard, Mariano Galvan, and the four patriots, Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and 
Jimenez were captured and executed as an example and warning to all who 
chose to revolt against the Crown of Spain. Hidalgo was killed July 21st. 
Thirty other leaders were executed shortly after, including Mariano Hidalgo, 
the cura's brother, and Chico, the minister of justice of the revolutionary 
government. The greatest indignity was added to the execution in the case 
of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jimenez, whose heads were cut off and sent to 
Guanajuato where they were placed in iron cages within the alhondiga, where they 
remained until 1821, when they were removed and with great pomp and honor 
buried with the bodies of the patriots in the chapel of Los Reyes beneath the altar 
of the kings in the cathedral of Mexico. The brutal act may have justified itself 
to the advisers of "divine right" majesty, as a warning against the assumption 
by the people that they possessed any rights; but humanity abhors the deed. 



THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



71 



If with the destruction of the great leaders and the scattering of the armies 
they had led to final disaster, the royalists believed the independence of Mexico 
had been made impossible, the 
striking events that followed dur- 
ing the next year must have been 
painfully disheartening. Ignacio 
Lopez Rayon, who had been a 
member of the revolutionary gov- 
ernment and was later named 
captain-general of the revolution- 
ary forces was not to be subdued 
by the fate of his colleagues. 
Neither was the spirit of the peo- 
ple crushed; the flame of revo- 
lution could not be quenched; 
desultory war continued. Rayon, 
after defeating the royalists, Ochoa 
and Zambrano, and meeting de- 
feat and success in turn, unsuc- 
cessfully attacked Valladolid on 
August 19, 1811, and set up a 
national junta at Zitacuaro in 
Michoacan, the members of which, 
besides himself, were Liceaga and 
the priest Verduzco. Another iturbide. 

leader arose who also was to sac- 
rifice his life for the cause of independence, after striking terror in the hearts of 
the gachupines and carrying the national cause to the very threshold of success. 
Jose Maria Morelos was born on the last day of September, 1765, on a ranch near 
Apatzingan, in Michoacan. His father, Manuel Morelos, was a carpenter and 
his mother, Juana Pavon, was the daughter of a schoolmaster at Valladolid. 
His early life was a struggle, but at twenty-five he entered the college of San 
Nicolas as a sizar and studied philosophy under Hidalgo. His course completed 
he was consecrated a priest, thus realizing a long cherished ambition. He 
served as cura for many years and was in office at Caracuaro when the revolution 




72 MEXICO 

began in Dolores. The following month he offered his services to Hidalgo 
which, being accepted, he was commissioned to attempt to take the Port of 
Acapulco. 

This great leader commenced his march from the scene of his parochial 
labors with just twenty-five followers. Prevented by sickness from active 
operations for some time, the Galeanas successfully held back the royalist 
army. Upon his recovery, Morelos resumed his leadership and took possession 
of Chilpancingo. Here he was joined by the three brothers Bravo and the 
son of one of these, Nicolas, whose names are famous in the winning of 
independence. After active campaigning, Morelos routed Fuentes the royalist 
commander at Tixtla and took possession of the city on August 17, 1811, fol- 
lowing this by the occupation of Chilapa, where he executed the officer Gago, 
who had deceived him as to the surrender of the fort at Acapulco. 

In order to destroy the ancient revolutionary government at Zitacuaro, 
Viceroy Venegas sent General Calleja to seize the town, which was held by 
Rayon. This he accomplished on January 2, 1812, and gave the place to pillage 
and destruction and all the buildings save the churches and convents were razed. 
While Rayon thus suffered defeat, Morelos had triumphed over the royalists 
and by the close of January, had strongly fortified himself at Cuautla de Amilpas, 
where he was attacked on February 15th, by the allied forces of Calleja, Llano, 
and Porlier and after a heroically defended siege was compelled to abandon the 
place on May 2d ; not, however, till he was absolutely starved out ; so completely 
had the place been invested that neither entrance nor exit was possible. In 
honor of this defence the city later received the added name of Morelos. No 
less heroic was the service rendered by the Galeanas, the Bravos and Mata- 
moros. A striking instance of the patriotism of the revolutionists is furnished 
in connection with the defence of Cuautla. Leonardo Bravo having been 
taken prisoner, the viceroy offered to spare his life on condition that his son 
Nicolas should abjure the cause of the revolution. Both father and son rejected 
the offer as an infamy and Leonardo was executed. The conduct of the patriotic 
son further furnishes a noble example of high-minded generosity. Though 
Morelos authorized Nicolas to put to death three hundred Spanish prisoners 
whom he had taken, he refused to follow the base example of the viceroy, but 
instead set his prisoners free. This act of chivalry has been embalmed in the 
pages of Mexican history and is called a venganyx insurgente. 



THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



73 



Recovering from his defeat at Cuautla, Morelos worsted the royalists at 
Orizaba in October of the same year and on the 24th of November he defeated 
General Saravia at Oaxaca and took 
possession of the city after a bril- 
liant engagement of two hours. As 
Morelos advanced upon the city, the 
bishop preached a Holy War against 
him and raised a force of two thou- 
sand men to oppose him, but the 
resistance was quite feeble. Morelos 
paroled the royalist officers taken in 
the city, except General Regules and 
one or two others, who were executed 
on the spot where two years earlier 
two spies sent by Hidalgo had been 
put to death. The bodies of these 
men, as well as those of two deacons 
who had been beheaded as patriots in 
1811, were now exhumed and buried 
with military honors. 

The capture of Oaxaca was a 
serious blow to the prestige of the 
royalists. This great victory was 
soon followed by the supersession of 
Viceroy Venegas, who was succeeded 

by General Felix Maria Calleja del Rey, the sixtieth viceroy in succession. A 
municipal government was established in the city, with Manuel Nicolas Busta- 
mante as president, and a garrison was established. After securing Oaxaca, 
Morelos moved toward Acapulco, which he captured on August 19th. 

Morelos realized the necessity of establishing union and cooperative effort 
between the revolutionists, and with this in view he caused a congress of elected 
delegates to meet. The congress assembled at Chilpancingo on September 14, 
1813, the members being elected in the case of the provinces in which the patriots 
were in power and appointed by Morelos for those held by the royalists. Eight 
members were present representing New Galicia, Michoacan, Guanajuato, 




THE LIBERTY BELL. OVER THE MAIN ENTRANCE 
OF THE NATIONAL PALACE. 



74 MEXICO 

Oaxaca, Tecpan, Mexico, Puebla and Vera Cruz. This congress, styled the 
congress of Anahuac, issued a declaration of independence, the terms of which 
asserted the absolute sovereignty of the people of Mexico and unrestricted 
independence of Spain. It read as follows: "The congress of Anahuac, in- 
stalled legitimately in the City of Chilpancingo in North America by its prov- 
inces, declares solemnly in the presence of the Lord God, arbiter of powers and 
author of society, who gives and takes away according to the inscrutable designs 
of his Providence, that, owing to the present conditions in Europe, it has re- 
covered the exercise of its usurped sovereignty; that accordingly its dependence 
upon the Spanish throne remains forever broken and dissolved; that it is com- 
petent to establish the laws which please it, for the best government and interior 
felicity; to make war and peace and establish alliance with the monarchs and 
republics of the old continent, no less than to make concordats with the Supreme 
Roman Pontiff for the direction of the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Church, 
and send ambassadors and consuls; that it professes and recognizes no other 
religion than the Catholic and will neither permit nor tolerate the public or 
secret practice of any other; that it will protect it with all its power, and will 
watch over the purity of the faith and its dogmas and the preservation of the 
regular bodies. It declares as guilty of high treason any one who will oppose 
directly or indirectly its independence, or protecting the European oppressors 
by work, word or writing, neglecting to contribute to the expenses, subsidies 
and pensions to continue the war, until its independence be recognized by the 
foreign nations; the congress reserving for itself the right to present to them, 
by means of a ministerial note, which will circulate in all the cabinets, the mani- 
festo of its complaints and the justice of this revolution, recognized already by 
Europe itself." 

Following the declaration of independence, Morelos planned the capture 
of Valladolid and appeared before the city on December 22, 1813, supported 
by a large army led by his brave lieutenants Matamoros, Nicolas Bravo and 
Galeana. The capture was frustrated, Viceroy Calleja had promptly sent the 
army of the north under Llano and Iturbide with a body of nearly four hun- 
dred horsemen. This was followed on January 5th, by a complete rout and 
the brave Matamoros being captured, he was shot at Valladolid on February 3d. 
Such was the fate of the bravest of Mexicans fighting for national liberty against 
a government whose only claim was that of an official legality decreed by an 



THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 75 

alien power, established by a military superiority and maintained by force and 
fraud. But time has avenged their memory, and their patriotism and valor 
shed lustre and glory on their names and rank them among the world's heroes as 
exemplars for the human race. 

A new political phase, however, gave fresh incentive to the cause of Mexico. 
In 1812, smarting under French domination, Spain had granted representation 
in the cortes to the West Indian possessions, which were made an integral part 
of the kingdom. Ferdinand, on his restoration, in March, 1814, repudiated the 
constitution and this reactionary and despotic course aroused widespread 
discontent among the royalists in Mexico, and furnished a new motive for 
independence. It may be said, without any disparagement of the brave 
patriots who first realized the need of revolution and embarked in its work, that 
except for the miserable and contemptible conduct of Ferdinand, independence 
would probably not have been achieved till a much later period than it was. 
But the act of the king was a blow at Mexican pride and interest at the same 
time and its effect upon the Creole royalists was immediate. 

The independence congress met at Apatzingan on October 22d and pro- 
claimed a constitution, under which Mexico was divided into seventeen inde- 
pendent provinces, namely: Mexico, Puebla, Tlascala, Vera Cruz, Yucatan, 
Oaxaca, Tecpan, Michoacan, Queretaro, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Potosi, 
Zacatecas, Durango, Sonora, Coahuila, and Nuevo Reyno de Leon. Full 
powers of government were provided provisionally until peace could be estab- 
lished, when the sovereignty should reside in an elected congress. The execu- 
tive branch of the government was entrusted to Liceaga, Morelos and Cos, 
the first named being president. 

The revolutionary movement continued to meet with reverses and the 
congress was constantly menaced, so for hoped-for greater security, it was 
proposed to meet at Tehuacan beyond the mountains. On the way thither 
from Uruapan, under the lead of Morelos, the royalist forces of Colonel Concha 
encountered the patriots at Tesmalaca on November 5, 1815, and the latter 
were disastrously routed, the brave Morelos being captured. He asked no 
consideration as he had shown little. The royalists were foes of his people and 
their cause and he had acted with severity against them when it seemed that 
the conditions demanded it. His trial and condemnation took place in Mexico, 
amid the exultation of the royalists, and he was shot at San Cristobal Ecatepec, 



76 



MEXICO 



near the capital, on the judgment of both the military tribunal and the Inqui- 
sition. He had been a no less able than brave leader. During the most difficult 
period of the revolution he had maintained his forces in face of great difficulties; 
he had crystallized the movement for independence into a sort of representative 
government, however localized in its powers; and had secured the issue of a formal 
declaration of independence; above all he had kept alive and given consistency 

to the struggle. Time has 
but strengthened the claim 
of Morelos to the affection 
of the Mexican people. 

A momentary discord 
among the revolutionary 
leaders manifested itself 
on the death of Morelos 
and some defections to the 
royalist cause occurred. 
Through the influence of 
Manuel de Mier y Teran a 
provisional executive com- 
mittee was substituted for 
the congress whose protec- 
tion on its migration to 
Tehuacan had cost the life 
of Morelos. At the mo- 
ment when the royalist 
arms were so nearly tri- 
umphant over the oppos- 
ing forces, Viceroy Calleja 
was recalled to Spain, 
where he received marked 
honor and was created 
Conde de Calderon. In contrast to these honors in Spain, he was dubbed by 
the Mexicans "the wild beast," as a fitting recognition of his ruthless severity. 
On September 19, 1816, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca succeeded to the vice- 
royalty, the sixty-first in succession. He was an able administrator and had 




ONE OF THE LARGE CYPRESS TREES IN THE GROVE OF 
CHAPULTEPEC. 



THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



77 



been captain-general of Cuba. In the same year the Jesuits returned to 
Mexico, a general desire being manifested therefor, in view of their influence 
as teachers and missionaries. 

On April 15, 1817, Francisco 
Javier Mina, a native of Navarre, 
reached Mexico. He had aban- 
doned his studies at the Univer- 
sity of Saragossa to participate in 
the resistance of his countrymen 
against the invasion of Napoleon 
in 1808, and became famous for 
the guerrilla warfare he maintained 
against the foreigners. He joined 
the liberals in resistance to the 
measures of Ferdinand in 1814, on 
his restoration. Being forced to 
flee from Spain he resolved to go 
to the aid of the Mexican patriots 
and sailed from Liverpool in May, 

1816, on a ship provided by the 
contributions of a few Englishmen, 
to the United States where he 
enlisted volunteers at Baltimore 
and Galveston and receiving at 
the latter place reinforcements he 

reached with seven vessels the River Santander on April 15th, and a few days 
later arrived at Soto la Marina, where he erected and garrisoned a fort, which 
he left in command of Major Sarda, while he advanced into the interior. 

Mina soon found himself engaged with the royalist forces and, after defeating 
them in minor engagements, he captured and sacked Pinos and joined the patriot 
forces at Fort Sombrero in Guanajuato under Moreno. Moreno was killed 
as he tried to escape, and Mina was shot by Lihan's order on November 11, 

1817, on a hill in front of the fort he had vainly tried to relieve, which stronghold, 
held by Father Torres, quickly fell into the hands of the royalists and its de- 
fender was shot soon after. The fort at Soto la Marina established by Mina 




HIDALGO ON HORSEBACK. 



78 MEXICO 

had already been taken. Again had a great leader paid with his life for the 
cause of liberty. 

The brave Nicolas Bravo suffered defeat on December 1st, at Coporo and 
on the 22d he was captured, with Ignacio Rayon and Verduzco, members of the 
first junta established at Zitacuaro. The viceroy spared their lives and they 
were released in 1820. 

The gap caused by Nicolas Bravo's capture was filled by Vicente Guerrero, 
who had safely conducted the congress to Tehuacan on November 16, 1816, 
after the capture of Morelos at Tesmalaca, But the tide of defeat could not 
be turned. The junta at Jaujilla was broken up and its members taken pris- 
oners or shot. Many of the leading revolutionists, deeming the struggle futile, 
submitted to the viceroy and were pardoned. The less severe policy he adopted 
seemed of more service to his king than was the severity of his. predecessor. 
Manuel Felix Fernandez, self-named Guadalupe Victoria, refused, however, to 
forego the terrors of a patriot, at the price of submission. 

The fruit of Mexican disaffection which had set at the time of Ferdinand's 
repudiation, in 1814, of the constitution of 1812, was ripened by a revolution in 
Spain, resulting from his despotic rule. The cortes enacted the closing of the 
convents, the abolition of the Inquisition, the freedom of the press, and the 
right of popular meetings and of forming political organizations. The consti- 
tution of 1812 was restored. It was favorably regarded in Mexico by the 
Creoles; but the times had changed and the official Spanish party realized that 
they could not retain their influence in the province under the new conditions; 
hence they chose to favor independence as offering a better means of retaining 
the control of public affairs. Such at least, would seem to be the motive of 
the volte face; at any rate a conspiracy was formed, the pretext being put for- 
ward, in some quarters, that as Ferdinand had accepted the new constitution 
under compulsion, he should be tendered a refuge in the New World. 

The man of the hour was Augustin de Iturbide. He was one of the most 
formidable of the royalist leaders and had punished the patriots without show of 
mercy. He, whose sword had been so active in destroying the independence army, 
was the hero selected by the conspirators to effect the independence of Mexico. 
He was born at Valladolid on September 27, 1783. His father was a Spaniard 
and his mother a Mexican; hence, though called a Creole, he was in truth a 
Mestizo. His personality was remarkably prepossessing and his bravery unlimited. 



THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 79 

His first step in the new movement for Mexican independence was to obtain com- 
mand of the royalist army of the south, in order to conquer Vicente Guerrero 
and "pacify the whole kingdom," as he himself said. Not succeeding against 
this doughty patriot he made known his plan to him, and received Guerrero's 
promise of support. Accordingly, he announced the famous " Plan de Iguala, " 
or the plan of "The Three Guarantees," on February 24, 1821. The basis of 
this claim was the exclusive establishment of the Roman Catholic religion; 
the absolute independence of Mexico, with a constitutional monarchy under 
the rule of Ferdinand; the union and equality of Mexicans and Spaniards. 
These three guarantees are emblemized in the national colors of Mexico — 
green representing the union of Mexicans and Spaniards; white, religious purity; 
red, independence. Provision was made for the government by a junta, pending 
the meeting of the cortes, and also in case the emperor did not come to Mexico. 
No disqualification for public office was permitted by reason of race or color. 
An army was to be created, to be called the Army of the Three Guarantees. 
The army at Iguala was sworn to support Iturbide's plan, and the viceroy was 
informed of its details and of the proposed membership of the junta, at the same 
time he was offered its presidency. Apodaca not only refused to entertain the 
plan but took measures to oppose its execution; in consequence he was removed 
from office on July 5th, and in his stead General Pedro Novella was provisionally 
appointed and ruled till July 30, 1821, when General Juan O'Donoju arrived 
at Vera Cruz as the regular successor — the last of the viceroys. 

Iturbide's plan made many friends for the cause of independence and 
among its supporters were Anastasio Bustamante, Santa Anna and Pedro 
Celestino Negrete. Iturbide held Guanajuato, Valladolid, Queretaro, and other 
places. The new viceroy finding that he could not reach the capital arranged 
a conference with Iturbide at Cordoba, which took place on August 24th, and 
the viceroy agreed to the Plan de Iguala, subject to his being appointed one 
of the provisional rulers of Mexico until the monarch could be selected. The 
agreement embodied in this plan is known as the "Treaty of Cordoba. " 

The way to independence was now clear. Iturbide, after rejoining his army, 
marched on the capital, which was evacuated by the royalist forces on the 
order of Viceroy O'Donoju and the army of independence entered the city in 
triumph, September 27, 1821. Mexico's freedom from Spain was accomplished 
for there was slight probability of a Bourbon occupying the throne, as in default 



80 



MEXICO 



of Ferdinand himself becoming monarch, it was provided that the cortes should 
select the sovereign. 

To the fact that the plan of the first revolutionists was not fulfilled is 
doubtless due the years of discord that followed until a republican and popular 
form of government became the guerdon of the long struggle for political freedom. 
Nevertheless, a national empire was an advance upon a provincial dependency, 
although a further struggle must intervene before the true aspirations of the 
people could be realized. 

The new era opening on the birth of the nation presents the immediate 
consummation of the Plan de Iguala in a provisional government, or regency 
composed of Iturbide, O'Donoju, Manuel de la Barcena, Jose Isidro Yanez and 
Manuel Velasquez de Leon, the first named being president of the governing 
body. It is significant that the patriots who had fought and bled and suffered 
for independence, the real successors of Hidalgo, were not recognized in the 
new situation. The territorial limits of Mexico included, besides all the area 
of the republic of to-day, that part of the United States from the Red and 
Arkansas Rivers to the Pacific Coast, extending north to the limits of the British 
dominion of Canada. A few days after the establishment of the new govern- 
ment O'Donoju died, October 8th, and the vacancy thus caused was filled by 
the appointment of Bishop Joaquin Oton Perez, of the See of Puebla. 




RESIDENCE OF MIGUEL HIDALGO. AT DOLORES HIDALGO. 




THE TOMB OF JUAREZ. 



CHAPTER IV 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 



THE Spanish cortes on the 16th of February, 1822, annulled the Plan de 
Iguala as modified by the Treaty of Cordoba. On the assembling of the 
first congress of Mexico, February 22d, at the capital, elected according to the 
provisions made by a committee of the regency, in accordance with the terms 
of the Treaty of Cordoba, it was seen that the members were aligned in two 
factions, the "Bourbonistas" and the "Republicans." Perez, Barcena and 
De Leon were displaced and Nicolas Bravo, the Conde de Heras Soto and Miguel 
Valentin were substituted. But the purpose of Iturbide to secure the crown as 
emperor was soon manifest. On May 18th, Pio Marcha, a non-commissioned 
infantry officer launched a movement in favor of Iturbide, and a public demon- 
stration resulted in his election next day by the congress by a vote of seventy- 
seven to fifteen and on July 21st, he was crowned in the cathedral with his wife 

83 



84 MEXICO 

as Emperor and Empress of Mexico. The Emperor took the title of Augustin I. 
Energetic as he was, he was nevertheless a weak ruler and abandoned himself 
to the display of royal pomp and power rather than to the initiation of measures 
for the welfare of the people and the establishment of the nation, and he soon 
found himself at odds with the Congress, which he dissolved on October 31st 
and established a junta. A revolutionary movement was set on foot by Guerrero, 
Nicolas Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria. The old revolutionists joined Antonio 
Lopez de Santa Anna and on February 1, 1823, the "Plan de Casa Mata" was 
promulgated, according to which a new Congress was to be elected and a repub- 
lican form of government guaranteed. Meantime, in December, a republic 
had been proclaimed at Vera Cruz and only the capital remained as the empire. 
In vain did Iturbide recall the Congress he had dissolved. The opposition was 
determined; he shrank from retaining power through a civil war and accord- 
ingly tendered his abdication March 19th, but the Congress refused to accept 
it, declaring instead that Iturbide's crown had been obtained by force and there- 
fore his acts as Emperor were illegal. He was banished from Mexico and set 
sail on April 11th, from La Antigua. Congress however voted him an annual 
pension of 25,000 pesos as a reward for his great services to his country. 

The government was now vested in a Poder Ejecutivo, composed of Pedro 
Celestino Negrete, Nicolas Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria, all of whom were 
absent from the capital at the time of their nomination. The second Congress, 
it may be called the first of the republic, met on November 7, 1823. Neverthe- 
less the independence of Mexico was largely assured by the United States, 
whose Congress received the message of President Monroe on December 2, 
1823, in which he formulated the doctrine known by his name which secured 
the governments of the Continent of America from interference by any European 
power. The course pursued by the government was little calculated to inspire 
confidence in its wisdom, financially or politically. In the early part of 1824, 
Iturbide addressed the Congress from London intimating that the clergy was 
plotting the restoration of Spanish rule in Mexico and offering his services in 
defense of the republic, but instead it was believed that an insurrection in favor 
of the banished emperor himself was on foot and a decree was issued declaring 
him a traitor and condemning him to death should he return to Mexico. Not 
knowing of this decree, Iturbide started from Southampton on May 11th, 
and on landing at the little port of Soto la Marina, north of Tampico, he was 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 



85 



arrested, taken before the legislature of Tamaulipas, which was in session, and 
condemned and shot at Padilla on July 19, 1824. His dying advice was intensely 
patriotic and he manifested re- 
markable courage. But his 
execution was a vengeful act, 
unwise, nay ungrateful, and a 
blot on the page of Mexican 
history which the honors paid 
later to his family and to his 
own remains, when on August 
6, 1838, they were buried with 
great ceremony in the Cathe- 
dral of Mexico, can never erase; 
while the title of the "Libera- 
tor" which was graved on his 
sarcophagus but emphasizes the 
self-reproach of his countrymen. 
Two parties, or factions, 
emerged in the Congress, the 
Bourbonistas, or Centralists, 
and the Federalists. The leaders 
of the former were Negrete, 
Bravo, Bustamante and Mier y 
Teran; of the latter, Victoria 
and Guerrero, whose adherents were more numerous, and they were successful 
in framing the Republican Constitution that was proclaimed on October 4, 1824. 
It declared the Roman Catholic religion to be perpetually the religion of the 
Mexican people. The Republic thus established consisted of the States of 
Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila and Texas, Durango, Guanajuato, Mexico, 
Michoacan, Nuevo Leon, Oaxaca, Puebla, Queretaro, San Luis Potost, Sonora 
and Sinaloa, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz, Jalisco, Yucatan and Zacatecas 
and the territories of Upper and Lower California, Colima, Santa Fe and 
Tlascala — nineteen states and five territories. On the 10th of October the first 
president, Nicolas Bravo, took the oath of office. Congress was dissolved on 
December 24th and the first Constitutional Congress convened on January 1, 




BENITO JUAREZ. 



86 MEXICO 

1825. In the same year, the last position held by the Spaniards, Fort San Juan 
de Ulua, was evacuated and the republic was recognized by the United States 
and Great Britain. 

During this administration the question of secret societies became urgent 
in consequence of the influence of the freemasons in political matters. The 
insurgent force was led by Vice-president Bravo who was of the Scottish lodge 
faction, but Guerrero defeated him and took him prisoner. 

The election in 1828 resulted in favor of General Manuel Gomez Pedraza, 
who was supported by the Scottish (Escoseses) masons, who defeated Vicente 
Guerrero, whose candidacy was espoused by the Yorkinos; but a pronunciamiento 
was made by the liberals in favor of Guerrero, who resorted to arms under the 
leadership of Santa Anna. The government forces defeated him, when he was 
given command of the army at whose hands he had suffered defeat. Pedraza, 
in view of the extreme excitement, resigned and Congress declared his election 
null and void and elected Guerrero president and Anastasio Bustamante vice- 
president on January 12, 1829. Among the measures of Guerrero's adminis- 
tration is to be noted the abolition of slavery. Bustamante was then elected 
president and Congress declared Guerrero "morally incapacitated to govern 
the nation." 

The government of Bustamante began on January 1, 1830. His principal 
adviser was the former historian, Lucas Alaman, who was minister of foreign 
and domestic relations and who had filled the same office under the Poder ejecu- 
tivo in 1823. The country was, however, agitated by dissensions and revolts 
instigated by Guerrero and his partisans and he was driven to Acapulco where 
he was trapped on the Colombo, a Sardinian ship whose captain had been bribed 
to invite Guerrero aboard and who delivered him to his enemies, by whom he 
was courtmartialed and shot on February 14, 1831. 

Bustamante's power did not last long, for in 1832 he was overthrown by 
the turbulent Santa Anna, who secured the elevation of Pedraza as the legitimate 
president by virtue of his election in 1828, although he had opposed him then 
in favor of Guerrero. In the election that followed, Bravo was chosen president, 
but Congress declared his election void and the way to the supreme magistracy 
was then open to Santa Anna who succeeded on April 1, 1833, Valentin Gomez 
Farias becoming vice-president. In 1836 the complete overthrow of the federal 
system was effected and centralized government established under a new 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 87 

constitution, the effect of which set at a greater distance the freedom of 
democratic government and the blessings of peace, thereby retarding the real 
development of the nation. 

One of the fruits of the rule of Santa Anna was the loss of Texas to Mexico. 
On November 27, 1838, war was declared against France. Santa Anna, who 
had come forth from his retirement at Manga de Clavo was given command at 
Vera Cruz. The French captured the forts Santiago and Concepcion, but 
failed in their attempt to capture Santa Anna in Vera Cruz and retreat to the 
ships was ordered by the French admiral. In following up the French to the 
shore Santa Anna acquired the laurels of a popular hero at the cost of his left 
leg, which was so badly wounded that amputation was necessary. Vera Cruz 
was then shelled by the French and evacuated, but this trivial war ended by a 
treaty in which Mexico agreed to pay the French demand of six hundred thous- 
and dollars within six months. 

A revolt broke out in Tampico during the troubles with France and President 
Bustamante took the field, leaving the again popular Santa Anna provisional 
president, on March 9, 1839. The movement spread and soon became a federal- 
ist revolution, involving the capital itself, in 1840. General Urrea and Gomez 
Farias were its successful leaders and Bustamante was taken prisoner. Once 
more the retirement at Manga de Clavo was abandoned and Santa Anna emerged 
to overthrow the federalists, to whom Bustamante, however, granted favorable 
conditions and the revolution ended. So unsettled were affairs that Gutierrez 
de Estrada, a former minister, publicly advocated a monarchy under a foreign 
prince. His plan however, merely resulted in his fleeing the country. What- 
ever the troubles of the people, they were not ready to seek relief in a monarchy. 

In 1841, General Paredes made a pronunciamiento against Bustamante's 
government. On this occasion General Valencia and Santa Anna, who had 
been successful in 1840, against the federalists, now joined the new insurrection, 
and the government troops having abandoned the president in favor of the 
insurgents, Bustamante was forced to retire from the presidency in 1842, 
notwithstanding his efforts at conciliation by the proclamation of federa- 
tion. The proposals of Santa Anna had won; he offered his "Bases of 
Tacubaya" proposing that the legislative and executive functions of the 
government should cease and that pending a congress, within eight months, 
to frame a new constitution, a junta should name a provisional president. 



88 



MEXICO 



As a result, Santa Anna became such provisional president, but the Con- 
gress elected showing a federalist majority a pronunciamiento of the army 

was issued naming a council 
of notables and opposing the 
Congress, which was dis- 
solved by the executive, as 
a matter of course, and the 
proposed council installed in 
January, 1843. In June, Las 
Basas Organicas, the new 
constitution, was adopted 
and its terms were less lib- 
eral than the Leyes of 1836, 
instigated by Santa Anna. 
The dictator under this new 
constitution did not assume 
direction at the capital till 
June 3d, Bravo and Canalizo 
governing as acting presi- 
dents. Shortly after, Santa 
Anna's wife died and he was 
married by proxy to a girl of 
fifteen. His government was 
truly despotic and he affected 
the pomp of a monarch. In 
fact, the general sentiment was well expressed when, on one of his many 
retirements to his estate, it was said: "The president is going in order to 
return crowned." 

The autocratic, costly, and inefficient rule of Santa Anna was at length 
challenged by a combination of opponents. In October 1844, the Guadalajara 
assembly declared against him and this was followed by a pronunciamiento 
made by General Paredes, who had previously supported Santa Anna, on 
November 2d, at that place, which declared for the suspension of the president 
pending investigation of his conduct. Puebla shortly joined Guadalajara, 
and then immediately followed the capital, where Jose Joaquin de Herrera was 




. SENOR GENERAL DON RAMON CORONA, ONE OF MEXICO'S 
FAMOUS GENERALS. 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 



89 



installed president of the council. Santa Anna met this condition by emerging 
from retirement and led an army to Queretaro. So great was the indignation at 
the capital that the precious leg lost by the dictator in his attack on the French 
was taken from the tomb and dragged in the streets, while the destruction of 
his statue was averted only by its removal to a hiding place. This outbreak in 
the capital changed Santa Anna's plans and he turned his army of fourteen thou- 
sand to the revolutionaries there. His deposition had been secured and his arrest 
ordered by the Congress and finding the resistance to him to.be so formidable he 
marched to Puebla, which he attacked on January 2, 1845. A few days later the 
troops under Paredes and Bravo arrived on the scene and Santa Anna was 
compelled to withdraw on Jan- 
uary 12th. After vain pro- 
posals to make terms with 
Herrera, he took flight but was 
captured and taken prisoner to 
Perote. His impeachment fol- 
lowed and he was banished per- 
petually, while Canalizo and 
four of his ministers were ban- 
ished for ten years. A general 
amnesty was proclaimed other- 
wise. Santa Anna took ship 
to Havana on June 3, 1845. 

Herrera now became con- 
stitutional president, Septem- 
ber 16, 1845. His first serious 
trouble was the Texan; he 
endeavored to compromise the 
situation; but, because of oppo- 
sition, he resorted to warlike 
measures and sent six thou- 
sand men under Paredes to 
the frontier. Paredes, however, 
issued a pronunciamiento against the president on December 14th, at San Luis 
Potosi, and on January 2, 1846, turned to the capital and overthrew Herrera. 




SENOR GENERAL DON MARIANO ESCOBEDO, WHO TOOK 
EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN PRISONER. 



90 MEXICO 

Reverting to Texan affairs, as being so largely the basis of the next great 
event to be described in Mexican history, it will be sufficient to notice that on 
several occasions since the independent government was established, a number 
of conflicts had occurred in which Mexican officers were employed. In 1839, 
a movement of federalists in Mexico was effected having as its object the estab- 
lishment of the Rio Grande Republic, of which Texas was to be a member. 

In 1844, an armistice was accepted between Mexico and Texas, proposed 
by Great Britain, but Texas refused to ratify it in consequence of its conditions 
declaring that the independent republic still constituted a part of the republic 
of Mexico. Hence, Santa Anna declared that a state of war existed. After this 
act by Great Britain, suspicion became widespread in the United States that the 
purpose of the British was to suppress slavery in Texas. Great Britain's course 
arose out of a request made by Texas in 1842, to Great Britain, France and the 
United States to intervene and put an end to Mexico's hostilities, but this appeal 
was not fruitful. The situation was further complicated in 1843, when the Con- 
gress of Mexico declared that if the Congress of the United States should pass 
an act to incorporate Texas with the United States such legislation would be 
deemed equivalent to a declaration of war. 

On April 12, 1844, a secret annexation treaty was signed by the United States 
and Texas, but the United States Senate failed to ratify it. The popular senti- 
ment in America had, however, appeared to demand incorporation and accord- 
ingly on March 1, 184S, a resolution was passed by Congress enabling Texas to 
frame a constitution, preparatory to admission into the Union. Neither the 
purpose of the measure nor its form could be acceptable to Mexico; nevertheless, 
on December 29th, after Texas had adopted an ordinance of annexation to the 
United States and the State constitution, Congress enacted its admission as a 
State into the Union. The resultant conflict, however inevitably the logic of 
events pointed to this absorption of the independent republic, was almost a 
foregone conclusion. 

There was ground of dispute enough to afford pretext for war. The claims 
of American citizens due since 1839, were still in large part unpaid. The boun- 
dary question, based on the claim of Texas of all territory between the United 
States and the Rio Grande from source to mouth was another. Trouble had 
occurred as to Upper California, when Commodore Jones had temporarily seized 
Monterey. The United States had sent a force under General Taylor to Fort 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 



91 



Jesup with instructions to proceed to the Sabine in case of Texas being endan- 
gered, and a naval force was sent to the Gulf of Mexico. Such was the situation 
when Congress adopted the annexation resolution. 

It was inevitable that the Mexican minister to Washington should demand 
his passports; that the United States Envoy should be graciously dismissed from 
Mexico, and that preparations for war should be actively pressed. Before -the 




RURALES ON THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER. 



storm broke, futile efforts were made to avert it, the United States sending 
Slidell as commissioner, but the essential condition of Mexico that the United 
States fleet off Vera Cruz should be withdrawn not having been complied with 
on his arrival in Vera Cruz on December 3, 1845, he was not recognized and his 
mission completely failed, and he withdrew from Mexico on March 21, 1846. 
This closed the diplomatic procedure. 

Meanwhile, General Taylor had taken Point Isabel and erected a fort oppo- 
site Matamoros. Here he was attacked by General Arista, who superseded 
Ampudia on April 24, 1846, and a formal declaration of war by the United States 



92 MEXICO 

followed on May 13th, on the ground that "Mexico has passed the boundary 
of the United States, has invaded our territory, and shed American blood upon 
the American soil," as President Polk stated. 

The second event was the attack on May 8th, at Palo Alto, which resulted in 
Arista's falling back next day to a position at Resaca de la Palma, from which he 
was driven with considerable loss, the same day, his artillery and supplies being 
captured. As a consequence of this defeat, Arista, whose forces greatly out- 
numbered the Americans, was deprived of command, being replaced by Ampu- 
dia. On May 18th, General Taylor occupied Matamoros. The turn of affairs 
in Mexico now brought the ubiquitous Santa Anna to the head, he following 
the now familiar course of a congress, called in pursuance of a pronunciamiento 
issued by General Mariano Salas, and the election of Santa Anna took place in 
December. He had returned to Mexico in August, and was passed through the 
American fleet off Vera Cruz in the hope that he would be a source of weakness 
at home rather than of strength. In addition to the pronunciamiento, General 
Jose Maria Gomez declared against President Paredes at Guadalajara and he 
was sent into exile. 

The new president took command of the army, leaving the government in 
the hands of vice-president Farias. On the 5th of that month he began his 
march against Monterey with a force of regulars and volunteers numbering in 
all about six thousand men. On the 19th, he was before Monterey, which was 
held by Ampudia, who had put this city in a good defensive state. The assault 
was made on the 21st, the defenders exhibiting the utmost bravery as they 
defended street by street. Three days passed when Ampudia capitulated with 
honors, after which an armistice of two months was agreed upon. During this 
time, General Patterson was sent to Tampico with a strong force and General 
Winfield Scott led a third force against Vera Cruz, previous to a march on the 
capital. To effect these movements, General Taylor's force was largely drawn 
upon and Santa Anna having learned of the proposed attack on Vera Cruz left 
San Luis Potosi on January 28, 1847, with twenty thousand troops to encounter 
Taylor at La Angostura (Buena Vista) where he hoped to surprise the Americans. 
On the 22d of February, Santa Anna demanded the surrender in terms that indi- 
cated his certainty of success. The following day he was repulsed, suffering great 
loss and retreating to San Luis Potosi. This victory was almost decisive, the 
defeated Santa Anna reaching his destination with his force reduced by one-half. 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 93 

The engagement was a terrible blow to the prestige of the man who had seemed 
"to hold Mexico in his despot grasp, strange as it may seem." Taylor's great 
success gained him only the task of defending the territory acquired and the 
Rio Grande frontier. 

The further operations in Mexico were concluded by the American com- 
mander-in-chief, General Scott. He landed his force of twelve thousand men 
near Vera Cruz on February 15th, and invested the city, the port being blockaded 
by Commodore Perry's squadron. Siege operations were prepared and on 
March 22d, the artillery and guns of the ships opened fire. The defence, under 
General Morales was worthy of a less bitter experience than that of the surrender, 
even with the honors of war, which was forced on the 26th. On April 12th, 
in view of the season, the American general withdrew his troops from Vera Cruz. 

Santa Anna, defeated by Taylor, had resumed his duties as President but 
his spirit was aroused on hearing of the defeat of Morales and the surrender of 
Vera Cruz. He hurried from the capital "to wash out that disaster." With 
ten thousand men he fortified himself stoutly at Cerro Gordo, about eighteen 
miles from Jalapa. Here he was attacked by General Scott on April 18th, and 
utterly defeated. Then fell, successively, Jalapa, Perote, and Puebla, and at 
the last named city Scott received instructions from the State Department to 
arrange a peace treaty, if the occasion served. Secret emissaries of the Mexican 
president visited the American commander as to this matter and Santa Anna 
has been charged with treason on account of it. 

On August 9th, General Scott entered the Valley of Mexico, tracing the 
route followed by the Spanish Conquistador es nearly three and a half centuries 
earlier, and arrived before the capital on the 20th, defeated Santa Anna at 
Padierna and Churubusco where a most gallant stand was made by General 
Anaya. In these last efforts, all credit is due to Santa Anna; his operations 
were marked with ability, courage and resourcefulness. 

Negotiations now followed for peace. On the 22d, hostilities were sus- 
pended and Nicholas P. Trist, chief clerk of the State Department of the United 
States, who had arrived at Puebla as peace commissioner, now proposed terms 
of peace on the basis of the cession of Texas, New Mexico and Upper California, 
and the right of free transit across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the payment 
to Mexico of a money consideration. These terms were rejected by Mexico 
and active hostilities were resumed on the night of September 7th, by an attack 



94 



MEXICO 



on Molino de Rey, which after stubborn fighting was taken the next day, but so 
strong was the position of the Mexican army that General Scott abandoned the 

field. Though success was not theirs, 
if valor and conspicuous ability merited 
it, General Antonio Leon and his brave 
aides deserved it, as well as the splen- 
did rank and file. Not until the 12th, 
did General Scott move against the 
Castle of Chapultepec which was mag- 
nificently defended by General Bravo 
and the military cadets of the Acad- 
emy, to their imperishable honor and 
glory. The capture of the stronghold 
was effected on the 13th. The death 
roll of the Mexicans bears the names 
of many noble sons, among whom con- 
spicuous merit signalizes Colonel Felipe 
Xicotencatl, the descendant of a famous 
Tlascaltec chief. The way to the city 
was now assured, and after securing 
causeways and the fortified gates of 
Belem and San Cosme, General Scott entered the city fighting his way step by 
step, valiantly opposed by soldiers and citizens. Santa Anna did not await the 
final issue but deserted both the government and the city on the successful 
forcing of the gates of Belem and San Cosme and turned the residue of his 
brave army over to General Reyes, having been deposed and summoned to 
appear before a council of war, but he left Mexico and fled to New Granada. 
In his place, Manuel Pena y Peha was elected temporary president and he 
made Queretaro the seat of government. 

Such was the condition of affairs when the Mexican capital fell to the Ameri- 
cans. New Mexico and California were conquered. Texas was irrevocably 
severed. To the task of restoring peace in the face of such disaster the new 
president resolutely directed his efforts. Commissioner Trist, though no longer 
officially authorized, succeeded in arranging a treaty, known as the Guadalupe- 
Hidalgo, which was signed on February 2, 1848, by the terms of which Texas, 




SENOR GENERAL DON MANUEL GONZALES. 
EX-PRESIDENT OF MEXICO. 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 



95 



the territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, New Mexico and Upper 
California were to pass to the United States, the latter country agreeing to pay 
Mexico fifteen million dollars and to assume and discharge all claims of American 
citizens against Mexico. Thus was Mexico stripped, as a consequence of a war 
which President Lincoln severely criticized and which General Grant character- 
ized as "the most unholy and unjust ever waged by a stronger nation against a 
weaker one;" nor do the vast material advantages that have followed to the 
territories reach back to palliate this view of the quarrel or justify the bitter 
suffering that it brought. 

The American army was soon withdrawn and on June 12th, Jose Joaquin de 
Herrera was elected constitutional president and the government was re-estab- 
lished at the capital. Its chief labor was to heal the wounds caused by the war, 
to ameliorate the general condition. The spirit of insurrection was not subdued, 
however, for General Paredes ef- 
fected a temporary revolt which was 
soon subdued, and Herrera was suc- 
cessful in the difficult task of re- 
ducing the army establishment and 
encouraging the building of railroads 
and telegraphs, the first of such latter 
undertakings being that of making 
communication between the capital 
and Puebla. With troubles also in 
Yucatan owing to the serious Indian 
uprisings in August, 1848, the presi- 
dent found his entire energies occu- 
pied, but he succeeded in establishing 
a union of the Province with Mexico, 
and relinquished the government to 
his successor with a record of great 
improvement accomplished. 

General Mariano Arista, who 
had commanded the Mexican Army 
at Palo Alto was elected to succeed Herrera and he asssumed the presidency in 
January, 1851. But neither his high sense of honor nor his patriotic purposes 




GENERAL CARLOS PACHECO, FORMERLY MINISTER 
OF FOMENTO. 



96 MEXICO 

could stay the revolutionary spirit which broke out at Guadalajara in July, 1852, 
and, in consequence of the "Plan of Jalisco," intended to overthrow him, and 
of the pronunciamientos in its favor, Arista resigned on January 3, 1853. The true 
purpose of the revolution was the installation of Santa Anna as dictator, and after 
a brief direction of the government by Ceballos and Lombardini, he was elected 
and assumed office on April 20th, after Ceballos had failed in an effort to call a 
national convention. The government during the next two years was one of 
persecution and arbitrary use of power. The dictator relied on the army to 
support his despotism and increase the military strength. He was, however, 
re-elected in December, 1853, and his power was greatly augmented. He was 
empowered to appoint his successor in office and virtually became dictator for 
life. Pomp and ceremonial befitting his supreme power was assumed and he 
obtained the title of "serene highness." In the same month he effected the 
sale to the United States of the territory known as "La Mesilla, " in Southern 
Arizona, for ten million dollars. 

Such rule as that of Santa Anna could not be endured and the fabric of 
perpetual power which the dictator had assiduously striven to weave was rudely 
shattered in 1854, by the "Plan de Ayutla, " which was proclaimed by Colonel 
Villareal on March 1st. A junta of notables was to appoint a provisional 
president and call a constituent Congress. This plan gained powerful support, 
among others who acceded to it being Colonel Ignacio Comonfort. The presi- 
dent marched against the insurgents, but failing to subdue the movement, he 
returned to the capital. Simultaneously, a force under Count de Boulbon 
entered Sonora from Upper California with the object of establishing there an 
independent dominion. 

Comonfort having equipped a powerful army, Santa Anna abandoned his 
government and went to Vera Cruz, giving the executive power into the hands 
of a triumvirate. Then he left Mexico, fleeing to Havana. The provisional 
president, appointed in pursuance of the revolutionary "plan," was Carrera 
but his nomination was not agreeable to Comonfort and General Juan Alvarez 
received the office at the hands of the junta. Among the ministers he selected 
were Benito Juarez and Comonfort, the latter of whom was elected as president 
on December 11, 1855. 

Early in 1856, Comonfort faced fresh insurrections that seemed to spring 
from their like as it were so many hydra-headed evils. He adopted drastic 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 



97 



measures against the church and the clergy, enforced the Lerdo law, abolishing 
civil and ecclesiastical mortmain and establishing individual ownership of lands. 
On June 5th, he suppressed the Jesuits and on September 17th, the Franciscans, 
in consequence of a conspiracy which was hatched in the convent of the latter 
to overthrow the government on Independence Day, the 15th, and secure the 
supremacy of the church in the nation. Comonfort took possession of the 




PICTURESQUE SPOT IN THE ALAMEDA. 



church of San Francisco and all its appurtenances early in the morning and 
the next day decreed the opening of a street, to be called Independencia, east 
and west through the grounds. The following day came the suppression of 
the monastic order. 

Again Puebla revolted, and for the second time in nine months it was retaken 
by the government troops on December 3d. This was followed by a pronuncia- 
miento at San Luis Potosi, which was quickly put down. The bird of peace now 
hovered over stricken Mexico for a short time under the vigorous and enlightened 
rule of Comonfort. On February 5, 1857, a new constitution was adopted, liberal 



98 MEXICO 

in character and establishing a republican federal form of government. The 
executive power was vested in a president elected for four years; a single house 
was to constitute the legislature, the members of which were to be elected for 
three years; a judicial branch was to comprise a supreme and inferior courts. 
The important question of presidential succession was regulated, so that in case 
of vacancy the president of the Supreme Court was to succeed temporarily 
pending a regular election. 

This constitution furnished safeguards against the abuses of power which 
had been possible under the Ayutla plan. The election of Comonfort to succeed 
himself followed, yet, inconsistently, a few days after entering office on December 
1st, he overthrew the constitution he had sworn to maintain and adopted the 
"Plan de Tacubaya, " announced by General Felix Zuloaga on December 17th, 
on the the pretext that the constitution was not adapted to the usages of the 
people. Under Zuloaga's "plan," Comonfort was to remain in power and con- 
voke a congress to frame a more suitable constitution, to be submitted to the 
electorate. Benito Juarez had been chosen president of the supreme court 
and it seemed necessary to the success of the new plan that he should be im- 
prisoned and Congress dissolved, which was done in December. But Comon- 
fort's plans failed, for on January 11, 1858, a pronunciamiento issued by the 
conservatives substituted General Zuloaga as president. The opposition was 
too strong and Comonfort, unable to defend the capital, abandoned it on the 
21st of January and proceeded to Vera Cruz, whence he went into exile. The 
reactionaries now annulled the reform measures of the constitutionalists, who 
had organized a government at Guanajuato under Juarez, who had been obliged 
to abandon the capital, and began war on their opponents, but suffered defeat 
at Salamanca. Later, the president was seized at Guadalajara by the garrison 
there, who had mutinied, but escaping he made his way to Panama and thence 
to New Orleans, and returning to Vera Cruz administered the government 
from there. 

Benito Juarez was born in Oaxaca, on March 21, 1806. He was imbued 
with the loftiest sentiments for the public weal and his counsel and direction 
had proved the greatest strength of the liberal party. He had been one of 
the professors at the Institute of Science and Art at Oaxaca, and one of his 
students was Porfirio Diaz, who doubtless owed much of his political bent to 
the training of Juarez, the full-blooded Indian, to whose patriotic labors Mexico 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 99 

owes her successful entry on a path of liberal policies which have led to so 
wonderful a development of national progress and prosperity. The keynote 
of his life was devotion to the public welfare and the highest ideals of man- 
hood. But the time was not yet ripe for the possible accomplishment of 
his great purposes. The people had yet to learn, through long years of suf- 
fering and struggles, the true principles of republican government and the 
rights of men. 

During this period of legitimate or constitutional government, under 
Juarez, the reactionaries maintained a government at the City of Mexico, 
under Zuloaga, and hostilities were bitterly waged against the reform party 
throughout the republic. Important successes were won by them, notably in 
the capture of Guanajuato, in July, by General Miguel Miramon and in Ahua- 
lulco in September, and as a result Miramon was named his substitute by 
Zuloaga after pronunciamientos in his favor by Generals Echeagaray, at 
Ayutla, and Robles Pezuela, at the capital. A junta having elected him 
president, he took office on February 2, 1859. The chief object he sought 
was to overthrow Juarez at Vera Cruz, but after a vigorous siege he abandoned 
the vain effort. 

On July 12, 1859, Juarez proclaimed the Laws of Reform, by which the issues 
of the conflict were clearly manifested. The United States recognized the 
legitimacy of the Juarez government and ministers were respectively appointed 
in Washington and Mexico. As a sequence of this constitutional proclama- 
tion, the Juarez government greatly abridged the influence of the clergy; 
severance of church and state was aimed at; civil marriages and civil rights 
were defined. 

The two governments were in conflict in foreign relations as well as 
domestic and their acts were on one side or the other protested against and 
repudiated. Juarez made a treaty with the United States giving the latter 
the right to protect its citizens in Mexico by force of arms. Miramon, on the 
other hand, gave treaty rights to Spain in regard to indemnity to Spanish 
subjects in Mexico. 

Miramon abandoned the field after his defeat on August 10, 1860, at the 
Silao Hills and repaired to the capital. Zuloaga having withdrawn the power 
conferred on Miramon as his substitute, the latter procured his own election 
as president by a junta. The resistance of the reactionaries was fast weakening, 



100 



MEXICO 



and their party rapidly diminishing; nevertheless, on December 20th, Miramon 
left the capital to meet the liberal forces and at Calpulalpam encountered 
General Gonzalez Ortega, by whom he was defeated. The capitulation of the 
capital followed on January 11, 1861. Juarez entered it in triumph with the 
liberal army of twenty-five thousand. Miramon escaped to Jalapa and finally 
reached France on a French war vessel. 

With the return of Juarez to the capital he began the active administration 
of the Reform Laws. One of his earliest acts was the dismissal of the Spanish 

minister and the papal legate. 
The half-century strife between 
Federalists and Centralists had 
triumphed finally in the success 
of the Liberals, though a guer- 
rilla warfare was continued for 
some little time. Zuloaga joined 
the reactionaries, declaring him- 
self to be president in virtue of 
his "Plan deTacubaya." Mel- 
chor Ocampo, one of the great 
leaders of the Reform, was 
seized at his hacienda and shot 
by order of General Marquez; 
Degollado who pursued the 
executioners was caught by 
bandits and was shot. These outrages aroused extreme indignation and a 
price was put on the heads of Marquez, Mejia and other rebel leaders. 
Marquez attacked the capital in June, 1861, and was repulsed only after 
heavy fighting. It was in this defence that Porfirio Diaz, who had returned 
to his native state and later was elected to Congress to represent Iztlan dis- 
trict, leaving his seat in the legislative chamber took a distinguished part. 
A little later, in August, Marquez was totally defeated by Diaz at Jalatlaco 
which brilliant event earned for the victor the rank of brigadier-general; a 
month later he was again disastrously defeated at Pachuca. The three years 
of war was over, and the way to domestic peace, progress and prosperity might 
seem clear. 




A COUNTRY ROAD IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO. 



THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 101 

Juarez was elected constitutional president and assumed office in June. 
On July 17th, the Congress, in view of the severe drain on the resources of the 
people caused by the protracted war, found it necessary to enact suspension of 
the sinking fund provision and the payment of interest on the foreign-held debt, 
for two years. Thereupon, France and England closed diplomatic relations 
and these nations together with Spain made a treaty on October 31st, under the 
terms of which they were to seize the principal ports and collect and distribute 
the customs receipts among the several foreign creditors of Mexico. The con- 
dition was also agreed that no Mexican territory should be acquired or any inter- 
ference be assumed as to the form of the Mexican government by either of the 
powers. The United States refused to join in this intervention. The French 
claim against Mexico was for six hundred thousand dollars, which had been 
collected by Juarez and seized by Miramon from the British legation where it 
was deposited for British bondholders. There was, besides, an old debt of 
about eighty million dollars contracted in the early days of the Republic. 
The claims of Spain and France were together about eighteen millions, all 
Mexican money. 

It was soon evident that political motives were involved in the intervention, 
at least on the part of France. When the allied fleet arrived at Vera Cruz in 
December, 1861, bearing the commissioners of the European powers, General 
Prim for Spain, Monsieur Dubois de Saligny for France; and Admiral Wyke for 
Great Britain, they issued a proclamation according to which their purpose 
was merely to secure settlement of the financial questions. On December 14, 
1861, the Spaniards, whose fleet reached there earlier than its allies, occupied 
Vera Cruz, which aroused the energetic resistance of the Mexicans, especially 
on the arrival of the French and British fleets on January 8, 1862. The united 
forces numbered nearly ten thousand men. 

Juarez issued a decree on January 25th calling on Mexicans to resist the 
invaders and imposing the penalty of death on all who should fail in this or who 
should aid or abet the invaders. This course seemed inevitable, inasmuch as 
the partisans of Almonte, Miramon and Gutierrez de Estrada, who in their 
exile had actively plotted in favor of a monarchy for Mexico, were prepared to 
give aid to the invaders. 

Juarez was anxious to avoid serious complications, if this could be honor- 
ably done, and he invited the commissioners to a conference at La Soledad, 



102 



MEXICO 



which resulted in a treaty on February 19th, by the terms of which the Spanish 
troops were to advance as far as Orizaba and the French to Tehuacan, and were 
to occupy those places until the treaty was confirmed. The Mexican govern- 
ment was to be recognized as constitutional. The ulterior aim of France was 
so insistent that the British and Spanish support was soon withdrawn. Mean- 
time, large reinforcements had arrived from France and with them came Almonte, 
Miranda, Haro y Tamaris and Miramon; the latter, however, to avoid arrest 
by the British, went to Havana. 




GENERAL PORFIRO DIAZ. 




NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE. 

CHAPTER V 

HISTORICAL EVENTS 



NAPOLEON III. had determined to create a throne in Mexico for Maximilian, 
Archduke of Austria. An excuse was soon formed for actual hostilities. 
Orizaba was reoccupied in spite of the agreement that if the terms of the treaty of 
La Soledad were not confirmed, the troops of the allies should retire to the posi- 
tions held by them previous to that treaty. The British and Spanish commis- 
sioners had refused to confirm the treaty. The French, under General de Lorencez, 
aided by Mexican conservatives, resolved to attack Puebla. General Ignacio 
Zaragoza strongly fortified the hills of Guadalupe and Loretta and received battle 
on May 5th, completely defeating the enemy, whose troops numbered six thou- 
sand. This great victory over the French and their Mexican allies is celebrated 
as one of the national feasts, El Cinco de Mayo, and the gallant Zaragoza received 

the appointment of military governor of Vera Cruz and the distinction of having 

105 



106 MEXICO 

his name inscribed on the walls of Congress in letters of gold, and Puebla took 
the name thenceforward of Puebla de Zaragoza. Diaz won fresh laurels for the 
valiant fight he led with his brigade and for his pursuit of the vanquished enemy. 

The conservatives had proclaimed Almonte president, under the "Plan de 
Cordoba," on April 19th. 

General Forey arrived in Mexico during September with heavy reinforce- 
ments and superseded Lorencez. Acting without recognizing Almonte's govern- 
ment he instituted an active campaign. He laid siege to Puebla on March 16, 
1863, with over twenty-five thousand men, but was repulsed repeatedly till the 
29th by the brave Ortega who defended the city with twenty- two thousand troops. 
On that day, Fort Iturbide was taken, but in hope of expected relief the gallant 
defender resisted every forward step within the city until forced by lack of food 
and ammunition, he was compelled to surrender on May 17th. Marching with a 
train to the relief was Comonfort, who had returned from exile to defend the 
integrity of the republic, and who on May 8th encountered Bazaine and Marquez 
at San Lorenzo and was defeated. This double disaster was only redeemed in 
part by the magnificent defence made by Ortega, which placed the achievement 
high on the roll of fame. Twelve thousand prisoners were taken at Puebla, 
including twenty-six generals. Of the latter some of them escaped later, among 
them being Ortega and Porfirio Diaz. The French under Bazaine entered on 
June 7th, Forey completing the occupation on June 10th. 

Forey by decree of June 16th, authorized the French minister Saligny to 
name a junta of thirty-five Mexican citizens who should elect three Mexicans 
to constitute the executive authority. This resulted in the choice of Almonte, 
Mariano Salas and Labastida, Archbishop of Mexico. The junta also chose an 
"assembly of notables" which met on July 10th, and declared the adoption 
of a moderate hereditary monarchy with a Roman Catholic prince as ruler, 
under the title of " Emperor of Mexico;" that the crown should be tendered to 
Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, for himself and his descendants; and that if 
Maximilian did not accept, then the benevolence of Napoleon III. was to be 
appealed to to nominate another Catholic prince. 

Maximilian accepted the tendered crown conditionally on a plebiscite in 
his favor, and the military aid of France so long as that might be necessary. 
On April 9, 1864, he renounced all rights to the throne of Austria and on the 
following day accepted the crown of Mexico. 



HISTORICAL EVENTS 



107 



On May 28, 1864, the new emperor arrived at Vera Cruz accompanied by the 
empress, Carlota. Thence they proceeded to Puebla and thence to the capital, 
where they were enthusiastically received on June 12, 1864. The Regency which 
had reigned in the name of the emperor was forthwith dissolved and Maximilian 
assumed personal rule. He was too liberal for the church authorities and soon 
found himself at odds with them. He was forced to issue a decree condemning 
to death (October 3, 1865) all persons carrying arms against the empire and all 
persons aiding them. This fateful decree which condemned patriots to the 









F s.-i 






■H 






i ■ 





GENERAL DIAZ AND PRESIDENT TAFT. 



ignoble death of "bandits and criminals" was issued on the presumption that 
Juarez had abandoned Mexico and that an official government of the republic 
no longer existed, but its promulgation and the infamous execution by Mendez 
served but to strengthen the patriot cause. 

History has a tempered rebuke for Maximilian and a sympathetic record 
for his sorrowful empress. As a man, the emperor had many excellent qualities; 
as an emperor, he might of his own volition have sought the goodwill and the 
weal of the people of Mexico. Mexico spurned him and his advisers. A belief 
that with his accession a stable government might ensue may have induced a 
large number to acquiesce in the establishment of an empire. But the movement 



108 MEXICO 

was conceived in treason; it practically gave back power to tyrants from whom 
it had been wrested at the price of peace, blood and life. The empire could 
not stand except by the mercy and favor of France and at the cost of Mexican 
blood and progress. 

Following upon the French occupation of the capital on June 7, 1863, despite 
frequent defeats and with lessening resources, fighting continued. Diaz bravely 
and splendidly defended Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Puebla, notably in the taking 
of Taxco, a brilliant operation for which he was rewarded with the rank of 
major-general. Bazaine, who had defeated Comonfort at San Lorenzo, replaced 
Forey, whose success had been rewarded by recall to enjoy a marshal's appoint- 
ment, on October 1, 1863, and was to assume also the diplomatic office of Saligny. 
Besides the French army, he had a Mexican division of twelve thousand under 
Marquez. With such forces the constitutional army must grapple to preserve 
the republic. The republican army was commanded in chief by ComOnfort, 
but in spite of most heroic defence, it was defeated in nearly all its battles of 
1863. The valiant Comonfort was killed on November 14th. Queretaro, 
Guanajuato, Guadalajara, Oaxaca, Chihuahua and other important places fell 
into the hands of the imperialists. The defence of the city of Oaxaca, from 
January 8th, to February 9, 1865, is one of the notable events in Mexican history. 
A siege of several weeks could not break the defenders, but lack of ammunition 
forced a surrender. The hero, Diaz, fell into the hands of the imperialists, but 
escaped their toils after several months' captivity, on September 20th. The seat 
of the government was continually being changed, till at length it was forced to 
the frontier at Paso del Norte. Dark, indeed, seemed the hope of the republic, 
but its interests were in the charge of men who were inured to battle and defeat; 
who knew the spirit of the Mexican people; whose courage and patriotism could 
not be quenched. On December 1, 1864, expired the term of office of President 
Juarez, but in view of the danger to which the republic would be exposed by a 
change of president at that time, the president declared in November, that his 
power would continue until a constitutional successor should be regularly elected. 

In the crisis that faced the government, the United States had not been a 
silent onlooker. The principles of the Monroe doctrine had provoked Secretary 
Seward to intimate to France that the establishment of a European monarchy 
in Mexico was not approved by his government and that, as soon as the pres- 
sure of domestic affairs relaxed, the United States government would mark its 



HIS Tt WICAL EVEN TS 



109 



disapproval of the occupation of Mexican territory by the army of a European 
power, and that it would not tolerate the establishment of an empire in that 
territory maintained by foreign military 
force. With the close of the Civil War, 
therefore, the United States government 
demanded the withdrawal of French 
troops and the cessation of colonization 
in the country. This ultimatum, for such 
it really was, resulted in Napoleon's aban- 
donment of the unfortunate Maximilian. 
Maximilian desired to abdicate and 
leave Mexico with the French troops but 
while postponing this course, the brave 
and devoted Carlota went to France and 
pleaded with Napoleon to maintain his 
troops in Mexico. In vain did she thus 
appeal, in August, 1866; she next went 
to Rome to secure the aid of the Pope, 
but there, weakened by her trials and 
crushed with her misfortune, her mind 
gave way and she was placed in retreat at 
Tervueren, near Brussels, where she still 
lives, long deprived of reason. In the 
south, Diaz, who since his escape from 
Puebla had gathered a noteworthy force 
was organizing a third campaign against the invaders, whom he signally defeated 
in brilliant engagements in Oaxaca, at Nochixtlan on September 23d, at Miahua- 
tlan on October 3d, and at La Carbonera on October 18th, the latter victory 
being especially significant. The Mexicans were now filled with enthusiasm 
and unwavering courage led them to make light of the discrepancies between 
their military resources and those of their opponents. Diaz then laid siege to 
the City of Oaxaca which surrendered on October 31st. This victory furnished 
the liberal army with much needed ammunition and artillery. Moving south- 
ward toward Tehuantepec, Diaz won the battles of La Chitova and Tequisistlan 
on December 19th and 26th. In January, 1867, the government was transferred 




STATUE OF COLUMBUS. 



110 MEXICO 

to Zacatecas, but it was again driven forth a few days later by Miramon, who 
had returned to Mexico, and the president and his ministers barely escaped cap- 
ture. Before the date for the final withdrawal of French troops arrived, Bazaine 
left Mexico with the last contingent, in February, 1867. 

But not all the desperate devotion of soldiers or skill of generals could 
prevent the republican armies of the North and West from uniting and on 
March 10th completing the investment of Queretaro. On March 22d, Marquez 
successfully got past the invading lines with a cavalry force of twelve hundred 
to make his way to the capital and bring thence the garrison to make a real 
attack on the invaders and allow the besieged to escape. Proceeding to the 
capital, Marquez secured the garrison, but instead of returning to Queretaro, 
he took his force of five thousand men to relieve Puebla, which General Porfirio 
Diaz was besieging after having driven the enemy from the south. The latter, 
however, captured the city on April 2d, after a masterly and brilliant twenty-five 
days' siege. On this occasion the victory was doubly remarkable as a military 
operation and as an example of the magnanimity of the victor, who spared the 
lives of those who surrendered, in spite of the provocation of the enemy through 
the cruel and wanton shooting of many of their prisoners. Diaz, joining forces 
with Guadarrama, completely routed Marquez at San Lorenzo on April 10th, 
and then marched to the capital, to which he laid siege on April 12th. 

At Queretaro, the Imperialists bravely sustained the unrelaxed siege, which 
was marked by many brilliant sorties against the republican troops; but without 
avail. The defeat of Marquez had destroyed all hope of relief to the besieged, 
and after a siege by General Escobedo of over nine weeks the imperialists 
resolved on its abandonment. Before this plan could be effected, Maximilian 
was seized through the treachery, it is said, of Colonel Miguel Lopez, who 
betrayed him. Maximilian spurned the opportunity to save himself, although 
warned of his danger. He took his last stand at the Cerro de Las Campanas, 
but finding it impossible to hold this position, the emperor surrendered his 
sword to Escobedo, on the 15th of May. 

Maximilian was imprisoned in the convent of the Capuchins with Miramon 
and Mejia, to await trial by court martial, in pursuance of the decree against 
traitors and invaders promulgated by Juarez on January 25, 1862. On June 13th, 
he was arraigned and condemned to death on the 15th. The sentence was ap- 
proved by General Escobedo who fixed the following day for the execution; 



HISTORICAL EVENTS 



111 



but it was postponed until the 19th, on the order of President Juarez, when at 
seven in the morning the unfortunate Maximilian, with Miramon and Mejia, 
was shot on the spot on the Cerro de las Campanas where he was captured. The 
appeal of the United States to spare the life of Maximilian had been refused, 
but President Juarez pardoned nineteen generals of the Imperial army who had 
been condemned to be shot. The president stood firm in his belief that his duty 
required that Maximilian should suffer the extreme penalty as a warning to 




THE POST OFFICE. 



usurpers and foreigners who might attempt to destroy the nation. The ex- 
emperor faced death as a hero, effacing his rank in the line of the doomed by 
giving Miramon the centre and his patriotic address, short and sympathetic, 
aroused admiration and crowned his tragic death with honor. Time has dealt 
mercifully with the memory of Maximilian and the voice of posterity has re- 
gretted the extreme penalty he suffered. 

At the capital, General Diaz was storming; Marquez defended the city 
bravely and well. Its fate was certain in any case, but its surrender became 
immediately inevitable on the arrival of reinforcements from the republican 



112 MEXICO 

army at Queretaro. On the night of June 17th, a determined sortie was repulsed 
with considerable loss and on the 19th the Austrian auxiliaries capitulated. 
On the 21st, the city surrendered, Marquez having gone into hiding, with his 
family, after resigning his position. Diaz occupied the capital and disposed 
of his large number of prisoners in three prisons and carefully safeguarded the 
rights of the inhabitants and administered orderly the affairs of the city so that 
he was able to hand over the large sum of three hundred thousand dollars on 
restoring the government to the president. 

Again, Juarez entered the capital in triumph, the people manifesting intense 
delight and enthusiasm on the occasion, the 15th of July. The disposal of the 
sentences against Imperialists was early concluded, great leniency being extended 
toward them. Marquez and some other leaders escaped, and finally a general 
amnesty was proclaimed on October 13th, 1870, excepting only Archbishop 
Labastida and Generals Uraga and Marquez. Of the other disturbers, mention 
need be made only of Santa Anna, who had returned to Mexico and been con- 
demned to eight years' banishment. He died at the capital on June 4, 1876. 

The work of rehabilitation of the political and business condition of the 
nation was a task that called for great wisdom and energy on the part of the 
executive. Juarez was re-elected president and endeavored to effect some changes 
in the constitution, but in view of the opposition of some of his supporters, the 
1857 constitution was re-established. The president of the supreme court was 
Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. Juarez succeeded in establishing diplomatic rela- 
tions with the European powers which had recognized the Imperial government. 
He instituted a change in the administrative divisions by erecting the States 
of Morelos and Hidalgo, in 1868 and 1869, respectively, in honor of the inde- 
pendence patriot martyrs. His first term was disturbed by insurrections and 
the familiar pronunciamientos, but the government promptly and firmly repressed 
them, so that he was re-elected and entered again on a four years' term on 
December 1, 1871. 

On July 18, 1872, Juarez died suddenly. In the regeneration of his country 
during a period of exhaustion that resulted from the war against the Imperialists 
and from the previous insurrectionary movements of the centralists, the labors of 
Juarez were directed with patriotic sincerity and great ability, and the march to- 
ward national consolidation was well advanced. I mportant railroads and telegraph 
lines were projected and established and the prosperity of the republic enlarged. 



HISTORICAL EVENTS 



113 



Lerdo de Tejada succeeded Juarez by virtue of the constitution, and with the 
acquiescence of the followers of Diaz. He retained the cabinet of his predecessor 
and quietly directed the public affairs. To quench disaffection, he proclaimed 
amnesty for those who had taken up arms against Juarez, of which, however, Diaz 
refused to accept. The constitutional election placed Lerdo de Tejada in office on 
December 1, 1872, and he again recognized the J uaristas in making up his cabinet. 




POST OFFICE, WEST CORRIDOR. 



A very serious insurrection broke out in 1873 in Tepic, under the leadership 
of Manuel Lozada, cacique of Alica, who marched with eight thousand men against 
Guadalajara, but was completely routed by General Ramon Corona, and the dis- 
trict of Tepic subdued and occupied by the government and Lozada was shot. 

On May 29, 1873, Congress approved the reform of the laws as to church 
and state and on September 25th, the constitution established separation of the 
two; freedom of religion; civic marriage; the right of affirmation by witnesses; 
free labor; the inviolable liberty of Mexicans as to labor, education and religion. 



114 MEXICO 

The disputes with the clericals had become bitter, foreign Jesuit priests had been 
expelled from the country, even the nuns had been driven from their convents and 
the Sisters of Charity were banished in 1874. In December of this year, Diaz 
was elected to the Federal Congress and his friends insisted on his candidacy for 
the Presidency at the next election. 

Lerdo's popularity and his hold became weakened early in 1875, and in May 
he secured from congress personal power and authority in respect to war and 
finances. The Juaristas were no longer ready to support him solidly. The con- 
flict aroused by President Lerdo's aspirations and the consequent opposition of 
the followers of Diaz had meantime plunged the country into warfare. Diaz 
especially had been indefatigable and successful in the field. After Matamoros 
came Icamole and these were followed by his culminating contest at Tecoac. 
He had reached Oaxaca with great difficulty, being obliged to travel from North 
Mexico to New Orleans, and thence to Vera Cruz in disguise. 

He gave battle to General Ignacio Alatorre on November 16, 1876, and com- 
pletely defeated him at Tecoac. President Lerdo abandoned the capital and went 
to New York. On the 24th, Diaz entered the capital and organized a government. 

Iglesias maintained that the proceedings were not constitutional and refused 
to acquiesce on the conditions proposed. Diaz entrusted the government to 
General Juan N. Mendez and took the field with General Manuel Gonzalez 
against Iglesias with an army of twelve thousand. Diaz returned to the capital 
on February 11, 1877, and resumed the executive power provisionally. On 
May 5th, the people elected him constitutional president for the term ending 
November 30, 1880. 

Though gaining the highest office by revolutionary means, Diaz avoided all 
approach to subversion of popular rights or dictatorial rule. His life was quite un- 
ostentatious; he declined the state residence and occupied his own modest home. 

One of the president's first tasks was the re-establishment- of friendly 
foreign relations; he affected an amicable arrangement of border troubles. The 
task of encouraging foreign capital to promote great enterprises, particularly 
railroads, was also early taken up. The increase of the public revenue and the 
economic and honest administration of public offices was zealously promoted by 
the president whose labors resulted in marked advance in prosperity and enlarge- 
ment of commerce and industry and a regular businesslike discharge of the 
public service with due regard to constitutional requirements. 



HIS TORICAL El EN TS 



115 




NATIONAL LIBRARY. 



In 1878, an important amendment of the constitution was effected providing 
that the president and the State governors should be ineligible to re-election 
until an interval of four 
years had elapsed from the 
termination of their offices. 
This change was absolutely 
endorsed by President Diaz, 
who would not consent to 
become a candidate for 
re-election in 1880. On 
September 25th, General 
Manuel Gonzalez was duly 
elected and he assumed 
office on December 1st, 
without any violence being 
manifested. Indeed, the 

new era had come; the transmission of executive power being accomplished 
peacefully, for the first time since the republic had been established. The new 
president secured the co-operation of his predecessor as the minister of public 
promotion, but in a few months, General Diaz resigned after initiating several 
important public works. 

The new birth of the nation manifested itself in growing demands for public 
improvements and a regular administration of the public service that outran 
the resources, which had not acquired the stability and elasticity sufficient to 
respond to the situation. Besides extension of public works, the government 
successfully established diplomatic relations with Great Britain. 

At the election in 1884, Diaz was again elected to the presidency and assumed 
office on December 1st. Successful as a leader in the field; familiar with all 
the political and industrial conditions and needs of the country, the popular 
choice of the people, he was now free to concentrate his wonderful energy and 
unusual ability on the task of making the nation. Financial chaos was the 
groundwork on which his government stood. The national treasury was penni- 
less; the credit of the country destroyed. Only the glimmering of real progress 
and financial and industrial advance and stability had so far been seen. Plans 
had been proposed of great merit. Railroads, telegraphs and other public 



116 MEXICO 

utilities had been advocated and projected, but the time of action had not arrived. 
With the clear and decisive judgment characteristic of the man, with the firm 
will and wonderful capacity with which he was gifted, Diaz imparted to his 
people the confidence he entertained and his administration was so successful 
that before its close, in 1888, Mexico had entered on the open path of political 
solidity and financial and commercial stability. The crushing burden of foreign 
debt was reduced; the means of transportation and communication were im- 
proved and extended; mining enterprises were actively fostered. 

One of the problems of serious import that early confronted the president 
was the relations with Guatemala arising out of the arbitrary decree of President 
Barrios of Guatemala that the control of the five Central American republics 
should be in his hands. President Diaz promptly protested against so despotic 
a claim and energetically prepared to support the protest by armed force, that 
"the old right of conquest should not prevail among the free peoples of America. " 
The great drainage canal, one of the notable modern engineering works, was 
begun at this time. Peace with the outside world, and but minor Indian upris- 
ings, which were quickly suppressed, gave the opportunity for works of real 
advancement, which were unintermittently followed. 

So imperative was the need of continuing the direction of the country in 
the same hands, that an amendment was made to the constitution providing 
that the president should be eligible to succeed himself for one term. Accord- 
ingly Diaz was again inaugurated on December 1, 1888, amid popular enthusiasm. 
The satisfactory domestic conditions permitted of fuller entry into international 
comity and of placing Mexico into closer and better defined relations with for- 
eign countries, a policy that was prudently and successfully carried to the 
conclusion of an extradition treaty with the United States and the creation 
of an International Boundary Commission, treaties of amity and commerce 
with Great Britain, Japan and Brazil, Russia and the Argentine Republic. 
Mexico participated in the Pan-American Conference at Washington in Decem- 
ber, 1889, being ably represented by her minister of that day, Sehor Mathias 
Romero, and General Enrique A. Mexia. 

Public improvement did not halt and a survey of public lands was provided 
for. An event that marked the wide interval of domestic strife that a few short 
years had bridged occurred in the funeral honors shown to ex-President Lerdo 
de Tejada, who had died in exile in New York, his obsequies in the National 



HISTORICAL El'ENTS 117 

capital being attended by President Diaz and all his ministers as well as the 
leading statesmen of the country. 

In 1892, so remarkable had been the advance made, so completely had the 
activities of the nation been weaned from fratricidal struggles and directed 
into channels that were building a magnificent heritage, that further consti- 
tutional provisions were adopted abolishing all restrictions upon the eligibility 
of the president to succeed himself, in order that the direction of affairs might 
not be jeopardized by a change in the policy of the government. 

The public enterprises under way, the extension of public instruction 
throughout the country, the development of mining and agriculture and the 
growing transportation and communication systems were matters of vital 
importance to the welfare of the nation and could bear no postponement except 
at the cost of the present and the future. 

The keynote of President Diaz's aspiration and self-imposed obligation, 
is found in his message to Congress on September 16, 1892: "The potent 
influence of peace, which is now fortunately consolidated, will undoubtedly 
be of great service to the republic in its progressive development. 

"Even if during the presidential term that is about to terminate no other 
advantage than this inestimable benefit should have been secured, my aspirations 
would have been satisfied, because the obtaining of greater happiness for the 
Mexican people is principally due to the virtues that have preserved men in 
the critical period of their history and to their love of order, economy and labor, 
which will place them some day among the nations most apt to gather the fruits 
of our modern civilization. " 

During the next term, for which Diaz was practically unanimously elected, 
studious care in the cultivation and extension of friendly foreign intercourse was 
the dominant policy. Internal affairs were responsive to the improved finan- 
cial measures; and every opportunity was sought in encouragement of foreign 
capital to sustain and extend the industrial and commercial development. 

In 1894, Mexico effected a satisfactory adjustment of boundaries with Great 
Britain in respect of the Yucatan-Belize delimitations, which had aroused 
perplexing controversy. The administration was called upon to exercise 
prudence and jealousy in dealing with Guatemala in the same year, when a 
general sentiment favored war in consequence of illegal acts charged against 
Guatemalan officials within Mexican territory. 



118 



MEXICO 



The financial affairs of the republic had steadily improved and during this 
administration satisfactory terms were arranged for the service of the foreign 
debt. The diplomatic relations were maintained on the basis of the strictest 
and justest recognition of international right and Mexico enjoyed the respect 
and confidence of the world. A memorable incident of this period was the 
opinion expressed by President Diaz on the quality and application of the Monroe 
Doctrine. This opinion was both able and judicious to a high degree. 1 1 carried 
the principle of maintaining the integrity of the republics beyond the limitations 




HISTORICAL CORNER IN MEXICO CITY. 



of a single American republic and claimed as a right and duty the co-operation 
of all American republics to secure the integrity of either. At the same time it 
indicated that such co-operation should be sought by the aggrieved nation and, 
moreover, that the occasion should be such as should clearly involve the integrity 
of the nation and he, moreover, reserved from outside influence questions that 
might affect national honor. 

Before the close of this term more than equilibrium had been established 
between revenues and expenses, for a considerable surplus remained in the 
treasury, while concurrently all branches of the public service had been judici- 
ously provided for and great strides taken in public works. 



HISTORICAL EVENTS 119 

On December 1, 1806, began the new term of President Diaz under the 
most auspicious promise. Particular attention was early directed to financial 
and commercial affairs, as required by the constantly expanding foreign and 
domestic trade. A law relating to institutions of credit was passed so as to 
extend commercial affairs with greater facility and protection; under the 
operation of which banking conveniences were greatly increased throughout 
the States. 

One of the measures of Congress to which the government gave successful 
effect was cause for national pride and at the same time greatly helped its finan- 
cial policy. This was the conversion of the national debt on a gold basis, with 
which was coupled the reduction of the interest by one per cent.; the release 
to the treasury of certain funds which had been hypothecated to the service of 
the foreign debt; the unification of such debt; and the cancellation of the mort- 
gage of the Tehuantepec Railway. 

The year 1898, was a period when the diplomacy and influence of the govern- 
ment was put to the test. Spain was at war with the United States. Inter- 
course with both combatants demanded a scrupulous neutrality between them, 
but the government of Mexico was skilfully conducted without giving rise to 
controversy with either belligerent. In 1899, the diplomatic rank of Mexico's 
minister to the United States was raised to that of an ambassador, a like courtesy 
being extended by the United States. The same year Mexico participated in 
the Peace Congress at the Hague, at the invitation of the Emperor of Russia; 
the United States and Mexico being the only American republics so invited. 
At this conference, the influence of Mexico was thrown in the direction of the 
enlightened principles in furtherance of international peace and amelioration 
of the ravages of war that were embodied in the convention of the Congress. 

The year 1900 is remarkable for the great improvements inaugurated in the 
capital. Tramways and the electric lighting service were extended and improved ; 
private and public buildings of a splendid character were erected, among them 
the Post Office, the National Geological Institute, the Children's Asylum and 
others; all of which contributed in an important degree to render the capital 
more attractive and befitting the modern standing of the city and the nation. 

The last diplomatic gap was filled during the year 1901, when official re- 
lations were re-established between Mexico and Austria Hungary, which had 
been closed since the war of the French Intervention. 



120 



MEXICO 



The delegates to the second Pan-American Conference assembled in the 
City of Mexico, in 1901. The occasion was critical owing to the strained 
relations then existing among some of the southern republics, and it is a tribute 
to the eminent position recognized as belonging to Mexico that the labor of the 
conference resulted in the conclusion of a series of important treaties and agree- 
ments tending to the welfare of the nations of the American continent. 

For some time a controversy had continued with the United States in regard 
to claims of the Catholic church in California and the case was presented to the 




A PART OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT OF CHAPULTEPEC. 

International Arbitration Court at The Hague, in 1902. The decision was adverse 
to Mexico but it was accepted and acted upon loyally by that country. This 
was the first case before the International court to which Mexico was a party. 

Diplomatic relations were officially established with Cuba, in 1902, and with 
Persia, in 1903, and legations were established in the southern republics. Ar- 
rangements for peaceful adjustment of disputes by arbitration were made with 
Venezuela and further evidence is thus given of the cordial sympathy of the Mex- 
ican people and its government with all courts to promote international amity. 

The City of Mexico, in 1903, was finally in the enjoyment of a completed 
drainage system which made the condition of the capital enviable. The same 



HISTORICAL EVENTS 121 

year marks the elimination of yellow fever as an epidemic. In other directions, 
also, progress continued to be the constant incentive of the government. 

An important change in the constitution was made respecting the presiden- 
tial term and the election of the vice-president. The former was extended to 
six years, that of the latter to be concurrent, and his election made similar to 
that of the president. Following this change came the almost unanimous 
re-election of Diaz and the election of Ramon Corral to the vice-presidency. 

One of the most interesting and useful incidents of late happening in Mexico 
was furnished by the visit, in 1907, of Mr. Elihu Root, Secretary of State. His 
reception and entertainment, splendid and magnificent, afforded the most com- 
plete evidence of the honor in which the government of which he was so eminent 
a member was held and of the high esteem and regard entertained for the Amer- 
ican nation by Mexico. The contrast drawn by Mr. Root between the Mexico 
of 1869, as seen by Secretary Seward and that viewed by Mr. Root so sharply 
points the progress made that it may well be recorded in the speaker's words: 

"Then was a country torn by civil war sunk in poverty, in distress, in almost 
helplessness. Now I find the country great in its prosperity, in its wealth, in 
its activity and enterprise, in the moral strength of its just and equal laws, and 
unalterable purpose to advance its people steadily along the path of progress. 
Mr. President, the people of the United States feel that the world owes this 
great change chiefly to you. They are grateful to you for it, for they rejoice 
in the prosperity and happiness of Mexico." 

Such was the glowing tribute to the lofty aims and the great achievements 
of Mexico. So strong a sympathy officially between the great governments 
of the northern continent may well inspire confidence in the future of Mexico. 
Other instances of the mutual friendship of the two republics are seen in the 
enthusiasm shown on the occasion of the celebration of Mexico's Independence 
Day at the Jamestown Exposition in 1907, at which the republic displayed a 
noteworthy exhibit. The great banquet of the Chamber of Commerce of New 
York in November, 1908, afforded an opportunity to Americans to testify their 
regard for the president and people of Mexico, which they did enthusiastically. 
Finally, the meeting of the two Presidents of North America's republics on the 
frontier on October 6, 1909, was as friendly as it was ceremonious. 

The historical meeting of President Taft of the United States and President 
Diaz of Mexico occurred at the frontier of the two countries on October 6, 1909. 



122 



MEXICO 



The exchange of courtesies was initiated by the Mexican Executive in terms 
eulogistic of President Taft, who in turn paid honor and tribute to President 
Diaz and Mexico. President Diaz, in full dress uniform, made brilliant with 
gold lace, and wearing many decorations, driven in a carriage richly gold-mounted 

and drawn by black 
horses, crossed the in- 
ternational bridge with 
an escort of troops and 
was received with cord- 
ial greeting on behalf 
of the United States 
by Secretary of War 
Dickinson, attended by 
a body of American 
troops, on reaching the 
boundary of the United 
States. Here as a guest 
of the sister republic 
he left his own carriage 
and entered into one 
provided by the American authorities while a salute of twenty-one guns was 
fired. Escorted by a large body of artillery he was driven through the streets 
of El Paso to the Chamber of Commerce Building, where he was awaited by 
the American President attended by his state and federal officials. Along the 
route loud and continuous cheers greeted Diaz, who was accompanied by General 
Cosio, minister of war; Olegario Molino, minister of commerce and industry; 
Sehor Creel, of Chihuahua, former ambassador to the United States; now secre- 
tary of state; Colonel Pablo Escandon, chief of the military staff; and Sehor de la 
Barra of the Mexican Committee of Arrangements. Formal greetings having 
been made and presentation of officials, the two presidents retired for a private 
interview, attended only by Governor Creel. 

The conference in the chamber of commerce over, and the Mexican president 
having returned within his own territory, President Taft was soon on his way 
across the international bridge to Juarez. He was received by the escort of 
President Diaz with all the distinction that had been accorded to the Mexican 




A COUNTRY ROAD IN PUEBLA. SHOWING POPOCATEPETL. 



HISTORICAL ETENTS 123 

executive. Quaint little Juarez had put on her holiday dress and everywhere 
fluttered brilliant banners and bunting; the way of the visitor was along a 
brilliant avenue of flower garlands and multicolored streamers. The greetings 
exchanged at the custom house were as follows: 

President Diaz: "Your Excellency, the Mexican people and I feel very 
proud indeed to have you on Mexican soil. I believe that the personal acquain- 
tance which I have made with you and the friendly feelings which already exist 
between the United States and Mexico will be a guaranty of the continuance 
of the friendly, cordial and strong relations between the peoples of the two 
countries, and that success and prosperity will follow." 

President Taft: "This is the first time, so far as I know, that a president 
of the United States has stepped beyond the border of the United States, either 
on the north or on the south, and I esteem it a great privilege to be the president 
at the time when that event has happened. I hope it is significant of the tight- 
ening of the bonds between the two countries. Railroads and other means of 
communication like the telegraph have brought us closer to each other, so that 
the City of Mexico and the City of Washington are far nearer to-day than they 
ever were before. 

"And that means a closer union of feeling between the two peoples, a closer 
feeling between those responsible for the government of each country; and I 
esteem it the greatest honor of my life to have the privilege of representing the 
United States in such a significant ceremony." 

The festivities really began with a magnificent banquet given by President 
Diaz to President Taft. The scene in the patio of the custom house was one 
never to be forgotten. The display of decorations was magnificent. The flowers 
used, three trainloads, came from all parts of the republic; the gold and silver 
plate was the service handed down from the time of Maximilian. The court- 
yard was converted into a banqueting room by means of a temporary roof and 
banks of flowers exhaled an enchanting fragrance. Prominent among the 
decorations were large portraits in oil of George Washington and the Cura 
Hidalgo, above which, expressive of the occasion and suggestive of the similar 
services of the two patriots stretched the stars and stripes of the United States 
and the red, white and green of the sister republic. The toast of President Diaz 
was profoundly cordial and appreciative of the greatness of the United States 
and the American people and of President Taft, and concluded with the words: 



124 



MEXICO 



"An occasion which will serve to strengthen the bonds existing between the two 
neighboring nations, whose respective elements of life and interest find in them- 
selves reciprocal complement and enhancement." 

Toasting the President of Mexico, President Taft said: 

"The aim and ideals of our two nations are identical, their sympathy 
mutual and lasting and the world has become sure of a vast neutral zone of peace 
in which the controlling aspiration of either nation is the individual's human 
happiness. I drink to my friend, the president of this great republic, to his 
continued long life and happiness, and to the never-ending bond of mutual 
sympathy between Mexico and the United States." 

The guests on this significant occasion numbered one hundred and fifty, the 
City of El Paso presented commemorative loving cups of gold to the two presi- 
dents. Soon after each president was on his way back to his seat of govern- 
ment. The American president was escorted to his own territory amid a 
bewildering blaze of light and attended by the shouts of happy welcome of 
the people of the picturesque Mexican town. 

This unique event, of happy promise for the mutual welfare and progress of 
the sister republics inaugurated a phase of relations that should make simpler the 
work of cooperation between the governments of the United States and Mexico. 




PRIVATE LIBRARY OF ONE OF MEXICO'S PROMINENT LAWYERS 




SCENE FROM THE PROCESSION OF THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER. 



CHAPTER VI 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 



OF all the great men of the Mexico of to-day none has done more than her 
present Chief Magistrate, perhaps none have done so much, to advance 
her with giant strides but true in the paths of prosperity and peace. 

Porfirio Diaz was born September 15, 1830, in the City of Oaxaca, in the 
state of the same name — the vispera or evening before the glorious anniversary 
of the national independence. His parents were Don Jose Faustino Diaz and 
Doha Petrona Mory. Oaxaca has been styled "the dwelling place of heroes in 
the garden of the gods," "the Eden of America," "tomb of the conquerors and 
the cradle of patriots. " The state, although mountainous, is rich in agricultural 
and mineral productions. 

Its scenery is grand, both temperate and tropical climates are found there, 
and it is well adapted to be the cradle of sons who should be the hope of the nation 
and who should raise aloft the standard of liberty. 

The ancestors of Porfirio Diaz were Spaniards who left their mother country 

in the first years of the conquest. His father possessed in a high degree all the 

natural qualities necessary to make him a patriot, a soldier or statesman. He 

was tall, symmetrical, muscular and active and carried himself in a manner 

indicating him to be a man of great resolution. The son resembled his father 

127 



128 MEXICO 

and is most affable in his manners, of a good heart and extremely generous, 
yet if an injury or injustice is done him he resents it with the greatest determin- 
ation and energy. This quality exists in all great men who, while ever ready 
to have justice done, are also prompt to punish evil. One who enters into com- 
bat, whether physical or moral, will never come off conqueror unless possessed 
of force and perseverance. 

President Diaz's mother, of the family of Morys, came from Asturias, whose 
strong and valiant sons were noted for their independent spirit and their ancient 
lineage, possessing the impetuosity of the Celts and the frankness and integrity 
of the Goths. Her grandfather, a Spaniard, married an Indian woman, who was 
General Diaz's great-grandmother, so that in the veins of Porfirio is mixed the 
blood of the proudest provinces of Spain with that of the highest nations of Amer- 
ica, as the Miztecas were fully as advanced in civilization as were the Aztecas. 

His father rented in Oaxaca the property known as the Meson de la Soledad, 
where Porfirio was born. There were six other children, two of whom died in 
infancy. In 1833, the Asiatic cholera invaded Mexico and among its victims 
was Captain Diaz. This was a great blow to the family, as the mother's health 
was delicate and her children young, but she had all the energy of her race, and 
at her husband's death she continued with the inn {meson) and showed in every 
way great firmness and intelligence, maintaining with vigor in all her acts her 
integrity as wife and mother. She possessed fine feelings, was industrious and 
hospitable, courteous and dignified. With all her modesty and delicate instincts 
she was brave, and in those tumultuous times, if necessary, could use arms in 
defence of herself and children. Her great desire was that her children should 
receive such intellectual development as should fit them for any place which 
they should be called to occupy. 

Porfirio was in a primary school until he was seven years old. At four- 
teen he entered the seminary directed by Roman Catholic ecclesiastics. There 
were several reasons for his entering this seminary rather than the Government 
institution of arts and sciences. Business matters had not been prosperous with 
his mother, and little by little, she was obliged to sell her belongings to main- 
tain and educate her family. In the seminary aid was rendered bright students. 
The father had desired that his sons be educated for the church. 

After studying for a time to prepare himself, he felt that he should do 
something to aid his mother, whose means had become exhausted, and he 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 129 

commenced to give lessons in his leisure hours. While doing this he came in 
contact with Don Marcos Perez, Judge of the Supreme Court of the State and 
Professor in the Government Institute of Arts and Sciences. He became very 
fond of Porfirio, whom he often took to the institute, discussing with him the 
tendency of extending civil and religious liberty. 

One day Perez invited him to be present at the distribution of prizes in the 
Civil College of the State. The Governor, Benito Juarez, was present and 
Porfirio was presented to him, Juarez had known Porfirio's father slightly, and 
had heard of the many efforts which the son was making to get an education 
so as to be his mother's staff and comfort. The Governor spoke encouragingly 
and young Diaz found therein the fountain of ambition and a source of desires, 
hopes and noble aspirations. 

As he realized the condition of his country he saw nothing but perdition, 
the curse of Spain and the pernicious results of ill directed efforts to force upon 
the Mexican people religion and European civilization, and he resolved to 
consecrate his life to his country. As a little boy in his play he had ever 
been a soldier, and had always been made the leader or general by the other 
boys, so that his inclinations to and capacity for a military life were early seen 
by his friends. 

When the war with the United States commenced in 1847, Porfirio's heart 
was filled with enthusiasm to fight for his country, and, with several of his 
college mates, he petitioned the Governor to send them to the front that they 
might help fight the enemy. Governor Guerque placed their names on his list, 
and the youths were inscribed upon the roll of the national guard, which con- 
sisted of one battalion, and which, by reason of the extreme youth of those 
composing it, received the epithet "Better than nothing." 

When Porfirio was nineteen and had finished his preparatory studies, the 
Bishop offered to confer on him in the following year the lesser orders, and to 
give him a scholarship. Diaz then declared his intention of studying juris- 
prudence in the institute. The prelate was surprised at a young man in needy 
circumstances disregarding such valuable aid. It was considered a mad decision. 
His uncle, the Bishop, withdrew his help and forbade him his house. 

Maternal tears affected the heart of the affectionate son, and although 
insensible to the counsels of the Bishop as also to his threats, he promised to do 
as his mother desired. Although a pious and devoted churchwoman, with 



130 



MEXICO 



great desires for his spiritual and temporal prosperity, she did not wish to go 
contrary to his will and to oblige or persuade him to follow a calling that would 
be disagreeable to him. She left him free to follow his inclinations. 

She lived long enough to see the practical wisdom of her son's determination, 
as after a few years came that blow which destroyed the power of the Church 

and placed a limit upon its influence, 
while men of intelligence and posi- 
tion found free scope in the profes- 
sion of the law. 

Porfirio Diaz entered the insti- 
tute and commenced in a systematic 
manner the study of jurisprudence, 
helping himself by teaching. Juarez, 
who had not forgotten him, gave 
him the position of librarian. After 
four years of study, having been 
elected assistant professor of Roman 
law even before graduating, he had, 
in compliance with the law, to enter 
a law office and practise two years, 
as the course of study required. 

During this time — 1853 — Santa 
Anna, who was made Dictator, im- 
proved every opportunity to de- 
stroy his opponents, and Juarez was 
arrested and taken to Vera Cruz, 
whence after receiving most cruel treatment in prison, he embarked for Havana, 
going eventually to New Orleans to live. His business affairs were passed over 
to his associate, Sehor Perez, but the latter having been imprisoned shortly after 
for holding correspondence with some of the opponents of Santa Anna, Porfirio 
Diaz took sole charge. He gave proof of his honesty and activity and showed 
great skill in the exercise of his profession. 

Seeing the injustice exercised in voting for the Dictator, he and other 
students were indignant at the unjustifiable display of power. However, when 
he saw the frauds committed, the young patriot could support it no longer, and 




SENORA DONA CARMEN ROMERO RUBIO DE DIAZ. 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 131 

he and one other went to the table where the negative list was to be voted. An 
order was soon out for their arrest and they were obliged to flee. 

Shortly after Diaz was called to put into practice what he had learned in 
his military drill, and, although only twenty-five, he was found fully competent 
to direct soldiers, and in the mountains of the Mizteca joined a small company 
of patriots, two or three hundred in number, commanded by Captain Herrera, 
who opposed the Dictator. Herrera, recognized his competency and took his 
advice. Soon after, though but few in number and having but few arms and 
being but poorly disciplined, they gained a victory at Scotongo over the large 
and well-disciplined forces of Santa Anna. 

When Santa Anna was overthrown and the Liberal Government was estab- 
lished, Porfirio returned and was rewarded by being made Chief of Police in 
the District of Ixtlan. 

In 1857, he went out under Lieutenant-Colonel Velasco to put down an upris- 
ing in Jamiltepec. In Ixcapax he was badly wounded, but seeing that one of 
the lines was in great danger, with blood streaming from his wounds, without 
heeding them, he went forward and with rare military courage so diverted the 
enemy as to defeat them. 

His mother died about the end of 1858, while he was in Tehuantepec. 
Through all his vicissitudes he had ever been an affectionate and obedient son, 
and her death caused him great sorrow. 

It was in that year he went to Tehuantepec under General Ignacio Mexia 
to fight Cobos, who was defeated at Jalapa, and while there he was left as 
military commander of that district. He maintained the Government in that 
region, contending against an enemy superior in strength, without receiving 
aid from the General Government, and counting only upon the resources that 
he himself knew how to obtain. He remained in Tehuantepec two years, fight- 
ing almost every day against large odds. Again he was wounded, but the vic- 
tory was complete. 

Discretion and prudence united to patriotism and noble aspirations have 
ever been the base of his military character. 

The extraction by a surgeon from the United States of a ball that he had 
carried in his body for years, relieved him from the acute physical suffering that 
he had so long endured. Soon after he received his commission as lieutenant- 
colonel for a victory obtained in June, 1859, in Mixtequilla. For another one 



132 MEXICO 

gained in Tehuantepec in November, 1859, the Government rewarded him with 
the rank of colonel. On the 5th of August, 1860, Diaz won another victory 
over Cobos in Oaxaca. 




ESCORTING THE PRESIDENT TO THE NATIONAL PALACE, 5TH OF MAY. 

Diaz loved above all things a military life, and could not bear the thought 
of separating himself from 'the army. On the battlefield, surrounded by his 
faithful companions, he experienced more than anywhere else the pleasure of 
satisfied ambition. There he could open up for himself a way without so greatly 
contending against the jealousies and envy which might be encountered in legis- 
lative halls. The hardships of war had been until now his sweets of life, and the 
noise of battle still resounded in his ears like harmonious music. But he had 
to submit to his lot and repair to the Capital of the Republic, there to work as a 
legislator, having gained another step in the ladder of fame. 

Although virtually the Conservative forces were destroyed, some chiefs, 
who could find no better occupation than to live by war, were aided by the church 
and the -prospects of booty. Leonardo Marquez, one of the most prominent 
of these revolutionary chiefs, on June 24, 1861, attempted an attack on the 
Capital. Congress was in session when the unexpected news reached them of 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 



133 



his arrival. Diaz, "a soldier first of all," asked permission to retire and hastened 
to the scene of danger. The forces from Oaxaca, which were quartered in the 
convent of San Fernando under General Mejia, resisted Marquez's attack, and 
Colonel Diaz's arrival was celebrated with cheers from his old companions in 
arms, whose enthusiasm he served to revive. Mejia gladly accepted his aid, 
and the victory was theirs. 

The importance of the support that Diaz here gave can be better understood 
by the reward that the Government conferred on him by giving the command 
of the brigade of Oaxaca to him with the order to join Ortega's division, and 
to march on and destroy the rest of the Conservative forces. 

On the 13th of August, 1861, the fourth anniversary of one of his first 
triumphs, Diaz, with his few soldiers, gained another victory over Marquez and 
his four thousand men. In his attack upon Marquez he had disobeyed General 







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THE TRIBUNAL, 5TH OF MAY. 



Ortega. It was not pleasant to this brave soldier to feel that all the glory of that 
campaign belonged to a subordinate. The victory was remarkable, Diaz had less 
than three hundred men and Marquez four thousand. In this encounter Diaz's 



13,4 MEXICO 

life was in peril. He had entered the ranks of the enemy unattended, as he led 
the attack, but the instinct of his charger seemed to realize the danger and he 
carried him back safely to his own troops. The command on this occasion had 
been given to Diaz, Mejia being ill and gladly accepting his aid. For his great 
service Diaz was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. 

Marquez, with the remnant of his broken army fled in haste but made a 
stand at Pachuca and Real del Monte, but suffered signal defeat on the 20th of 
October. With these events, the Conservative force was broken and the War 
of Reform practically closed. 

A new stage in the career of Diaz was about to open. The French interven- 
tion was aimed against the true nationalization of Mexico. Here the Mexicans 
were traitorously engaged with the foreign invader in an effort to overthrow the 
republic. Juarez, who had been elected constitutional president, sent the army 
against the enemy, who had broken the convention of La Soledad. Diaz was 
ordered to lead his brigade to the Pass of Acultzingo to aid in its defense. He 
first engaged the enemy at Escamela between Orizaba and Cordova and reaching 
Puente Colorado he strongly established his force and then did valorous and 
effective work in holding back the vanguard of the enemy, affording saving help 
to the vanquished and by his marked skill and bravery giving much-needed 
confidence to the national troops, whose lack of organization and means of defense 
were the crucial tests that proved the quality of generalship. The great victory 
of Acultzingo on April 28th, proved that Diaz was a master of strategy and 
alertness coupled with the most remarkable measure of audacity and bravery. 

The Mexicans retired to Puebla and reached there May 3d. On the next 
day, General Zaragoza addressed his officers urging his army "to fight to the 
last, so that even though it were not possible to be victorious." The battle on 
the 5th proved a victory for the patriots, the record of which is enshrined in the 
hearts of the people and serves to thrill them and their children with patriotic 
fervor. The part that Diaz took in this memorable victory was a most decisive 
one and none knew the service he rendered in that "forlorn hope" better than 
the great general who was in chief command. Diaz 'again met the French at 
Orizaba on June 14th. 

Civil and military duties now devolved on Diaz, to whom was confided 
the administration of the State of Vera Cruz. The French had been reinforced 
and again Puebla was invested. The Mexican army was now under the chief 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 



135 



command of General Ortega, the gallant Zaragoza having died. Puebla had 
been besieged for two months since the 6th of March 1863. Its defense evoked 
most thrilling deeds of heroism which mark the siege as among the memorable 
events in history. General Diaz earned 
proud laurels for his personal bravery 
and wonderful resources. His defense 
of the Meson de San Marcos was a bril- 
liant deed and the general and the man 
demonstrated the highest qualities. 
But the vain struggle ended by sur- 
render on May 16th. Diaz, with a 
noble inspiration, refused to burn his 
flags; instead, he buried them, assured 
that he would some day return and 
recover them to float in advance of a 
victorious army. 

A prisoner to the foreign invader, 
Diaz with other Mexican officers re- 
fused to sign an agreement not to take 
up arms for his country, or endeavor to 
escape. The large number of prisoners, 
eleven thousand soldiers and fifteen 
hundred civil officials, proved too many for complete vigilance, so adopting a bold 
ruse, Diaz soon escaped as did Berriozabal and, later, many others. He made 
his way at once to Mexico City and placed himself at the disposal of President 
Juarez who desired him to become Secretary of War. This Diaz refused believ- 
ing that such an office should be conferred on a senior or ranking officer. He 
assented to the alternative proposal of taking command of a division. 

When Juarez determined to abandon the City of Mexico, Diaz went to 
Oaxaca to organize the army of the East and for some time maintained a desper- 
ate fight in that State and in Guerrero and Puebla, relieved by the assault and 
capture of Taxco on October 28, 1863, a feat accomplished against great odds 
and due only to the tactics and valor of Diaz. Discouragement and defeat 
seemed to be no force against him, and treachery seemed but to feed his valor 
and love of independence. The promise of honor and emolument at the hand 




LIEUTENANT-COLONEL PORFIRIO DIAZ. 



136 MEXICO 

of his country's foe, as the price of abandoning the struggle for independence 
only aroused his scorn. Not long after the victory of Taxco he was promoted 
to the rank of major-general. 

Slowly and with difficulty had Diaz created an army when Marshal Bazaine 
took command of the Imperial army, a force of eighteen thousand men with forty- 
eight guns, and laid siege to Oaxaca. Diaz, governor as well as commander, 
maintained a most stubborn defence during several weeks, but he could not, 
is spite of his brilliant efforts, fight starvation and, lacking ammunition, surrender 
was inevitable. Without a flag of truce or other safeguard, and under the fire 
of the enemy, this intrepid general sought the headquarters of the French com- 
mander, accompanied only by Colonels Angulo and Echegaray, and surrendered 
on February 9, 1865. To the greeting of Bazaine "that he had returned to his 
promise and would not again take up arms against his sovereign," Diaz replied 
unhesitatingly that he owed allegiance only to the Mexican nation and no other 
would he serve or recognize. Bazaine believing that Diaz had been liberated 
earlier on parole, severely reproached him for his breach of faith, but finding on 
reference to the register that Diaz had not signed any document, he gave orders 
for his imprisonment. First, he was confined in San Loreto, then in Santa 
Clara, and finally in the convent of La Compania. While in the first named 
prison strong efforts were made to induce the prisoners to take the oath of alleg- 
iance to Maximilian, many officers succumbed to the temptation, and to intimi- 
date the others, several officers were led forth and shot at midnight. Four at 
least, including Diaz, could not be shaken in their allegiance. In the convent 
of Santa Catarina, Diaz worked for nearly five months digging a tunnel to lead to 
the street. Before it was completed, he was removed to the convent of La Com- 
pania. The story of his escape from this convent so strikingly illustrates the 
determination and resourceful character of the hero, that in spite of frequent 
telling, it should be repeated here. 

Diaz had secured ropes, which were smuggled into the bath room under his 
clean clothes. He wound these around his body under his clothes, to avoid their 
being discovered. He had a well-sharpened dagger. In preparation for his 
attempt, he rolled three of the ropes, which, with a third in reserve, and his 
dagger he hid under the bed clothes on the afternoon of September 20th. When 
the signal sounded at night for retirement of the prisoners, he stepped out on an 
open balcony close to the roofs which overlooked an inner courtyard. The three 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 



137 



ropes he carried concealed in a cloth and not being observed cast them on a 
neighboring roof. The remaining rope was then tied to a projecting stone gutter 
that promised sufficient strength. This was not easily or very quickly accom- 
plished as it was very dark, but it was done and after testing its strength care- 
fully, by this Diaz climbed to the roof. He then tied his four ropes together. 

To reach the point from which the captive would descend was very hazar- 
dous, the convent being overlooked by a neighboring church, where a sentinel 




CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC. 



was always on guard. Cautiously crossing the roof, frequently on hands and 
knees, the general passed along two sides of the courtyard, exposed to the danger 
of discovery by the flashes of lightning that frequently lighted up the sky and 
also by the danger of betraying himself through the noise he might cause by 
treading on fragments of broken tile and glass scattered over the roof. He 
then proceeded erect and seeking to ascertain if an alarm had been given, his foot 
slipped on the wet masonry and he was almost precipitated through a window. A 
very hazardous part of the roof had yet to be crossed before the point of descent 
could be reached, namely the side where the chaplain dwelt. This chaplain had 
denounced some time before several political prisoners who had cut their way 



138 



MEXICO 



through his rooms and on his evidence they were shot. Almost breathless, 
Diaz let himself down to the chaplain's roof at a point opposite the place where 

he had ascended and finally reached the 
San Roque corner where he had planned 
to descend. At this corner was a statue 
of San Vincent Ferrer about which he in- 
tended to fasten his rope, but on touching 
it, it appeared ready to fall and although 
he supposed it might have an iron sup- 
port, he deemed it safer to tie the rope 
around the base of its pedestal, which 
seemed strong enough to bear his weight. 
It occurred to Diaz that he might be 
seen if he descended at the corner of the 
street, so he decided to lower himself by 
the side of the building away from the 
corner and in the shadow. On reaching 
the second story his foot slipped and he 
fell quite a distance into a pigsty. At 
the same time his dagger slipped from its 
sheath and falling on one of the pigs 
probably wounded it, and when he stum- 
bled among them they squealed loudly. 
Fortunately, no one was passing at the moment and his discovery was avoided. 
He waited till the animals quieted down and then leaped over a low garden 
fence into the street, only to beat a quick retreat on seeing a policeman making 
his round. The man soon passed and Diaz, much relieved, but almost exhausted 
from fatigue, hastened to a house where he knew a horse, a servant and a guide 
would be found. Arrived there, the three, with loaded pistols, leaped into the 
saddle and after evading a mounted patrol reached the outskirts of Puebla. 
Contrary to his expectation he was not stopped at the city gates by the sentinels, 
on the contrary, the gate was open and unguarded and at full trot the party 
passed through and then gallopped off along the road. 

He gathered together a small' force, and here and there would have engage- 
ments, with varying success. But the brilliant triumphs of Miahuatlan and La 




STAIRWAY TO THE CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC. 



GENERAL PORE I RIO DIAZ 



139 



Carbonera over the Austrians brought back to General Diaz all the lustre and 
fame that he had gained as the most prominent General of the country. While 
the battles in themselves were eclipsed by many of his previous victories, they 
were most notable for the indisputable establishment of republican supremacy 
in all the vast region of the South — the result of more than a year of untold and 
persevering efforts. 

He again organized new troops and defeated Visoza in Tulcingo, State of 
Puebla, on the 1st of October, 1865. He then went to La Providencia, and 
General Juan Alvarez gave him some two hundred arms, and he again defeated 
Visoza at Comitlipa, State of Guerrero, on the 4th of December, 1865. 

From Miahautlan, he marched to the City of Oaxaca, and while besieging 
the capital learned that the Imperial government had sent a column under com- 
mand of Baron Luker, an Austrian officer, to relieve the besieged garrison of 
Oaxaca. General Diaz decided at once to march on the approaching relief 
column, which he met at La Carbonera on the 18th of October, 1866, and 




RECEPTION AT THE PALACE ON THE EIGHTIETH BIRTHDAY OF GENERAL DIAZ. 



after routing it completely he returned to Oaxaca, when the garrison surren- 
dered on the 31st of the same month. He thus obtained forty-two pieces of 



140 MEXICO 

artillery, two thousand five hundred muskets and all the garrison provisions 
and stores. 

The 1st of November, 1866, General Diaz entered his natal city to be 
crowned with laurel as its liberator. On April 2d, 1867, he won in Puebla 
another most glorious victory which made the walls of the empire totter, as this 
was one of the invader's three strongholds. Among the prisoners were eleven 
generals and three bishops. By law all the officers taken prisoners were to be 
shot as traitors, and even foreigners were to receive the same fate after the 
French armies had been withdrawn. Presenting himself before the eleven gen- 
erals, Diaz politely invited them to follow him, without being guarded, to the 
episcopal palace, where were six hundred officials, many of them occupied with 
confession and making their final arrangements, as they knew the fate that had 
befallen other prisoners. "Gentlemen," said Diaz, "it is impossible for me 
to execute the punishment which the law imposes, and there is no other alter- 
native for me but to make you prisoners; but I remember well my own suffer- 
ings while a prisoner in this same place, and I wish to avoid your being put to 
such straits. Go, then, you are free. All that I ask of you is that you promise 
me to put yourselves at the disposition of the Supreme Government if you are 
so ordered.- The nation will pronounce its sentence upon the empire, but it will 
be indulgent to its misguided sons." This general amnesty, which later found 
its parallel at Appomattox, caused on all sides a great tumult of satisfaction. 
Men who had before been enemies pledged themselves hereafter to be friends. 
Many turned away to hide their tears. General Diaz himself was. profoundly 
moved. Among the prisoners was a colonel who was ashamed and fearful at 
the same time, and could not believe that he was free; as when the Count Von 
Thun had fixed the price of ten thousand dollars for the head of General Diaz 
when he escaped from Puebla this Colonel Escamilla (then Chief of Police of 
Izucar) offered another thousand from his own pocket. The General understood 
well his captive's fear and shame, and said: "Colonel, that imprudent action 
was suggested by blind duty; let us forget it." From that time Escamilla 
was one of his most loyal partisans. 

The tempering with magnanimity the rigor of the law, avoiding the baptism 
of blood, had its influence in the fall of the City of Mexico, procuring for 
Diaz great praise among friends and enemies. General Tamariz, who died 
shortly afterward, said with emotion: "Twice Diaz has conquered me by his 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 



141 




CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC, OVERLOOKING THE 
VALLEY OF MEXICO. 



military talent and once by his generosity; with pleasure I would serve such a 
man, although it were as a common soldier." 

After the capture of Puebla, General Diaz went to meet the Imperial General 
Marquez, who had left Queretaro to relieve Mexico, and who was marching against 
Puebla. On the 5th of April, Gen- 
eral Diaz overtook Marquez at San 
Diego Notario, where a battle was 
fought, ending in the defeat of Mar- 
quez. General Diaz followed up his 
victory and met Marquez again at 
San Lorenzo on the 10th of April, 
defeating him completely. 

Diaz then marched to Mexico, 
establishing himself in Tacubaya, 
and commenced operations to put 
the City in a state of siege. On the 
14th of May, General Escobedo 
took Queretaro. Maximilian was 

tried by court-martial and was condemned to death by his own decree of the 
3d of October, 1865, that all officers taken prisoners should be shot. 

Diaz had continued with great vigor the siege of the capital, and on the 20th 
of June the Conservatives yielded and he entered the city quietly and took a 
small house in the suburbs, having his office in the School of Mines. No banner 
of any sort was raised on the palace until the 15th of July, when Juarez himself 
hoisted the flag. 

'The day following the surrender of Mexico, Diaz presented his resignation 
as commander of the line and Army of the East, and after a few months returned 
to his native city, Oaxaca, which with open arms welcomed the hero home again. 
It was one triumphal march from the capital to his home. He was given by the 
Legislature of Oaxaca the Hacienda de la Noria, to which he retired, living there 
quietly for two years, resting from his labors and fatiguing marches. 

He had formed, even when quite young, an attachment for Delfina Ortega 
y Reyes and on the day of the surrender of Puebla, the 2d of April — that memor- 
able day in which he gave liberty to the captives — he was joined in matrimony 
to the woman of his choice. Sehora de Diaz possessed great sweetness of character 



142 MEXICO 

and kindness of heart, and her greatest pleasure was in works of charity and in 
aiding the elevation and education of her sex — taking upon herself the care of a 
college for girls which her husband had founded. 

Benito Juarez was now president, and Diaz was elected as Deputy to Con- 
gress for his state. On July 18, 1872, Juarez died and Sebastian Lerdo de 
Tejada succeeded him. Lerdo was afterward elected to the presidency, but 
there being much dissatisfaction by reason of his attitude against the church 
party and of a feeling among the soldiers that General Diaz should be the 
president, the revolutions continued throughout the country. He went to the 
United States, but the siren voice of Adventure called him back to his native 
land. He took passage on an American vessel but was recognized by some 
passengers. Fearing arrest at Vera Cruz, he attempted to escape by jumping 
overboard, but was rescued by the sailors. He invoked the aid of the friendly 
purser, who hid him in a locker and smuggled him ashore at Vera Cruz. 

Diaz passed through many vicissitudes, and at last, on November 16, 1876, 
with an armed force gained a victory over the Lerdistas at Tecoac. 

Lerdo, hearing of the loss to his party and of the brilliant victory of Diaz, 
started with some of the faithful members of his Cabinet and with what money 
he could lay his hands on, on November 20, 1876, for Acapulco, there taking 
passage for the United States. General Diaz entered Mexico on the 23d of the 
same month and five days afterward assumed the executive power. He formed 
his Cabinet, raised a loan of five hundred thousand dollars to commence the new 
administration, and, leaving General Mendez as president ad interim, went out 
to finish up with the revolutionary element. 

There were then really three presidents of Mexico: Lerdo, who had aban- 
doned the country; Iglesias, who had been Chief justice, or Vice-President under 
the Lerdo government, and Diaz. Iglesias, seeing the desperate condition in 
which he was placed, followed Lerdo's example, embarking at Manzanillo for 
San Francisco, Cal., the 17th of January, 1877. For two months General Diaz 
marched from the central States toward Guadalajara, capturing all the Lerdist 
troops without firing a single shot. At the end of the two months he relieved 
General Mendez and assumed the actual presidency of the republic. 

After having served his term as president, General Manuel Gonzalez, who 
had distinguished himself as a military man by the side of General Diaz, was 
elected to succeed him. 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 



143 



For a time under Gonzalez, General Diaz was Minislro de Fomenlo. but 
retired in May, 1881. Soon after he was elected Senator from the State of 
Morelos and Governor of Oaxaca, which 
position he took November 30, 1881. Two 
years after the death of his wife he mar- 
ried Carmen, a notably beautiful brunette, 
eldest daughter of Senor Don Manuel 
Romero Rubio. They harmonized well — 
he the personification of strength, she of 
beauty and purity. Simple, without af- 
fectation, she unites to a kindly heart a 
most admirable presence of mind and dig- 
nity. She speaks with facility English 
and French. Everyone is delighted with 
her affability and the sweetness and melody 
of her voice. They spent part of their 
honeymoon in the United States, where 
they were everywhere received with ova- 
tion, special trains being put at their dis- 
posal and great courtesy shown them by all . 

On December 1, 1884, the second 
presidential period of General Diaz was 
inaugurated. The ceremony took place 

in Congress Hall, which was formerly the Iturbide Theatre. The Diplomatic 
Corps were in full dress, while General Diaz had on a simple black suit. In five 
minutes after he took the chair he had taken the oath of office and retired as 
quietly as he came, to the palace, there to receive welcome and congratulations 
from General Gonzalez, and to appoint his Cabinet. 

Under President Diaz's administration many reforms in the constitution 
and laws of the country have been made, and the result is that there reigns 
under him a security which was never before known in the republic. His liberal 
ideas, his enthusiasm for the development of the country and his previous honest 
administration enabled him to begin his second term under much better conditions 
than existed during his first; and again the confidence of the public was not mis- 
placed, since during this second administration Mexico progressed more than ever. 




PORFIRIO DIAZ, THE THIRD. 



144 



MEXICO 



Diaz's life has been identified with that of- the Mexican Republic for the last 
forty years. The life of this really wonderful man presents many points and 
lessons for future generations to study. He is to-day, as he has been for many 
years, the first soldier of the Republic, and what is better, its first citizen. From 
the very bottom of the ladder, from a young lieutenant at the age of twenty- 
three, to the highest commission in the army as its General-in-Chief, his career 
is spotless and brilliant. 

But it is not most as a soldier that he has won the admiration and fame 
which he enjoys to-day, at home as well as abroad. It is as a statesman, in his 
civil duties, in the many political, financial and diplomatic questions which he 
has so successfully solved, that the greatness of Porfirio Diaz must be considered. 

He has been the savior of the republic, the creator of the real nation, the 
defender of the people; whose success was possible only because of his inflexible 
integrity and singleness of purpose, his goal was never obscured by the shadow 
of personal advantage and ambition; whose hand was never palsied by question- 
able intrigues. ■ Friend or foe were such to him only because for or against the 
unification of the nation. Among the names of the wonder-workers of the 
world the name of Porfirio Diaz will shine and remain imperishable. 











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SOLDIERS IN PARADE, I6TH OF SEPTEMBER. 




PATIO OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 



CHAPTER VII 



THE CABINET 



GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ has been elected and inaugurated to his 
eighth term of the presidency. This is something unprecedented in the 
history of republics. He has surrounded himself with honorable and judicious 
ministers of his Cabinet, who have devoted their entire lives to the interests of 
their country. At the expiration of their term it is the custom for the Cabinet 
to resign in a body, leaving the selection of a new Cabinet to the president. This 
is a delicate and courteous custom that would relieve the head of the nation from 
an embarrassing position, but with the exception of some changes in the Depart- 
ment of War and Navy, the same ministers have remained in office unless ill health 
has forced their resignation, or death intervened. The Secretary of State sends 
in his resignation through the sub-Secretary of his department, but all the others 

tender theirs through the Secretary of Foreign Affairs. To these letters the 

147 



148 



MEXICO 



president replies that their resignations are not accepted, and begs their co-oper- 
ation in the public administration. This is but another proof of his statesman- 
ship, as each of his ministers is 
carefully chosen with a view to 
his fitness for the work entrusted 
to his judgment and abilities. 

The Cabinet consists of 
eight Secretaries: the Secre- 
tary of State (Foreign Affairs), 
the Secretary of Finance, the 
Secretary of Public Works, the 
Secretary of Industry and Colo- 
nization, the Secretary of the 
Interior, the Secretary of Jus- 
tice, the Secretary of Public In- 
struction and Fine Art, and the 
Secretary of War and Marine. 

These members of the Cab- 
inet must be native born Mexi- 
cans, and the Minister of War 
must be a soldier holding dis- 
tinguished military rank and 
record. The office of Vice- 
President was created in 1904. 
Before that time the Secretary 
of Foreign Affairs stood next in rank to the President. Sehor Don Ramon 
Corral has the distinction of being Mexico's first Vice-President and is one of 
the progressive spirits of Mexico. For many years he was Governor of the 
State of Sonora and is regarded by the people of that State with great respect 
and affection. He did many things while Governor to merit their kindly regard, 
and his integrity of purpose and wise supervision of the affairs of the State of 
Sonora attracted the attention of Mexico to him, and he now holds the distinctive 
position of being a great factor in the affairs of the Republic. 

During the Centennial Celebration he was the head of the Commission 
which accomplished so many great things for the entertainment of foreign envoys 




SENOR DON RAMON CORRAL, VICE-PRESIDENT. 



THE CABINET 



149 



to the capital. He is a quiet but shrewd man and, unlike most Vice-Presidents 
of republics, he has a great power in the affairs of the State, and in his high office 
he brings to bear his rigorous and unquestioned talent. He speaks French and 
English perfectly and is a friend to all foreigners who have occasion to invoke 
his aid. 

The Ministry of the Interior has charge of general elections, relations with 
the Federal Congress, Citizens' Rights, Police, Public Health and Immigration, 
Federal District and Territories, the National Guard in the Federal District, 
all hospitals, public buildings, national festivities and the Government Printing 
Office. Sehor Corral is the Minister of Interior as well as Vice-President and 
Speaker of the Senate. 

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs 
has charge of all relations with for- 
eign countries, treaties and diplo- 
matic affairs, boundary questions, 
the naturalization and rights of for- 
eigners, the National Archives, the 
arrangement of ceremonies, and is 
custodian of the Grand Seal of the 
nation. This seat was held for 
nearly half a century by Sehor 
Licenciado Don Ignacio Mariscal 
until April 16, 1910, when Mexico 
sustained a great loss in the death 
of so noble a man. He had served 
his country and his President faith- 
fully, and besides being a diplomat 
of great talent he was a brilliant 
litterateur and his poems are widely 
read and loved. 

Sefior Don Enrique C. Creel, 
Governor of the State of Chihuahua 
and former ambassador for Mexico to the United States, succeeded him. Sehor 
Creel has long been noted as a great statesman. His brilliant mind and diplomatic 
tact have already demonstrated the wisdom of selecting him for so important a post. 




SENOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL, MINISTER OF 
FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 



ISO 



MEXICO 




SENOR LIC. JOSE LIMANTOUR. MINISTER OF FINANCE. 

wonderful reserve is merely a part of 
his education, but a closer acquaint- 
ance with him draws out many char- 
acteristics of his remarkably strong 
nature. He has been sent to Europe 
on many diplomatic errands, and has 
always succeeded in showing the finan- 
cial powers abroad his wonderful ac- 
complishments and strength as a man 
of diplomacy and political wisdom. He 
was born in Mexico of French parents 
in 1853, and his education while a boy 
was gained in the best home schools 
and in travels abroad. He graduated 
from the School of Jurisprudence and 
has fulfilled more important missions 
abroad than any official in Mexico. 



The Department of Finance, 
Public Credit and Commerce has 
charge of taxation, customs tariff, 
commerce, national prosperity, loans 
and public debt, the valuation of 
lands and the budget. 

Sehor Jose Yves Limantour, the 
Secretary of Finance, has an inter- 
national reputation as a great finan- 
cier. He has been in the political 
life of the republic since 1893, and 
during that time he has safely engi- 
neered financial feats that have sur- 
prised and enlightened the world. 
He is a man of very strong per- 
sonality. One might call him un- 
sympathetic, not knowing that his 




SENOR INC. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, MINISTER OF 
COMMUNICATIONS AND PUBLIC WORKS. 



THE CABINET 



151 



The Department of Communications and Public Works has charge of the 
interior mail service, telegraph and telephone lines, postal union, railways, port- 
works, all public improvements 
and the drainage of the Valley of 
Mexico. 

Sehor Ingeniero Don Leandro 
Fernandez, whose brilliant career as 
a civil engineer won him this impor- 
tant position in the Cabinet, has t 
made a life study of all engineering 
questions and his travels abroad in 
the interest of his work have given 
him a great experience. He was 
formerly the Governor of Durango 
and made a great name for himself 
in the important office he held in 
that State. 

The Department of Public In- 
struction and Fine Art has charge 
of all matters pertaining to educa- 
tion in the Federal District and all 
territories, the Academy of Fine 
Arts, the Conservatory of Music 

and Elocution, Arts and Crafts, Commercial College and all future educational 
institutions, all normal schools, copyrights, museums and libraries, archaeological 
and historical monuments, encouragement of culture, art and science, and all 
conventions of this nature. 

Senor Justo Sierra, Minister of Public Instruction, is one of Mexico's literary 
men. His beautiful poems are widely read. In 1905, Sehor Sierra took his 
seat in the Cabinet and has held his position with dignity and honor, and all 
educational. interests have in him an able administrator. He was the Secretary 
of Justice before he became the Minister of Education. Speaking many languages, 
his magnificent personality and bearing make him a great favorite in Mexico. 

The Department of Fomento includes all matters relative to agriculture, 
vacant lands, colonization, agricultural colleges, trade marks, patents, weights 




SENOR L1C. OLEGARIO MOLINA. MINISTER OF FOMENTO. 



152 



MEXICO 



and measures, observatories, survey, making of maps and all industrial, agricul- 
tural or mining statistics. 

This office is held by Sefior Licenciado Olegario Molina, who was Governor of 
Yucatan until he was called to the Cabinet three years ago. He has shown him- 
self able and has aided much in the development of his country's welfare since 
taking his seat. He was born in Campeche in 1843, and has been identified with 
all the commercial progress of Yucatan, having been Governor of that State, and 
under his able generalship much was done toward the rapid advancement which 
has marked Yucatan within the past decade. He has borne his great dignity 

with intelligence and discrimina- 
tion and is regarded as a wise 
administrator. 

Sehor Cosio, the Minister of 
War and Marine, was born in the 
State of Zacatecas, and, besides 
having occupied the position of 
governor of that State and that 
of congressman and senator, he 
displayed great ability as mayor 
of the City of Mexico. He is one 
of the most popular men of the 
Cabinet. 

There is quite a romantic epi- 
sode in the life of General Cosio. 
During the Civil War of the United 
States he was in New York in com- 
pany with two other young officers, 
destitute, but anxious to return to 
Mexico to fight for his country 
against the French. None of the 
three had enough money to take 
him back, so they decided that 
one of them should be selected 
by lot and enlist in the army of the United States, obtain the eight hundred 
dollars in greenbacks which were given as bounty to each enlisting man at 




GENERAL MANUEL GONZALEZ COSIO, MINISTER OF 
WAR AND MARINE. 



THE CABINET 



153 



that time, and give the money to the other two to go back to Mexico and 
fight for their country. 

The lot fell to Cosio, who was on the point of presenting himself at head- 
quarters in New York and enlisting in the army so that his two companions 
could go back to Mexico with the 
money thus obtained, when Gen- 
eral Mejia arrived in New York. 
He was visited by the three young 
officers and acquainted with their 
intention, and he gave them all 
passage-money and sent them back 
to Mexico as commissioned officers. 
Thus it was that instead of fighting 
for the American Union, as Cosio 
came very near doing, he battled 
for his own country until the French 
were banished from Mexico. The 
popularity of General Cosio is un- 
questioned. He is a man of large 
intelligence, long experience in civil 
affairs, and proved capacity. A 
man who has fought in revolutions, 
won distinction for gallantry in the 
war against the empire, suffered 
imprisonment in France as an inci- 
dent of that conflict, served twice as 

governor of Zacatecas, been a deputy and a senator in the Federal Congress, and 
for ten years held the most conspicuous place in the municipal council of the City 
of Mexico, is surely qualified to hold an important ministry in a great country. 

The War and Marine Department controls a standing army, navy and mer- 
chant marine, the National Guard, Military Legislation, Military Justice, Par- 
dons, Naval and Military Schools, Hospitals, Fortresses, Warlike Indian Tribes 
and Military Colonies. 

General Manuel Gonzalez Cosio is a war veteran and has given his life to the 
service of his country. He was Secretary of the Interior before his appointment 




SENOR LIC. JUSTO SIERRA, MINISTER OF PUBLIC 
INSTRUCTION AND FINE ARTS. 



154 



MEXICO 



to the War Department. Few men in Mexico have the ability and energy that he 
has developed in the numerous offices he has held for his Government. His record 
as a soldier is brilliant with success and his career forms part of the history of 
Mexico. He is called "El Ministro Perpetual." His family are all scientists 
and around him are always gathered people of brilliancy and talent. 

The Department of Justice has charge of all relations with the Courts, par- 
dons and commutations of sentences for offenses against the Federation and 
ordinary offenses, relation with the Courts of the Federal District, Prosecuting 
Attorneys and Notaries and all criminal statistics. 

Sehor Justino Fernandez, the Secretary of this Department, is one of the 
most intellectual men in the Republic, being very active in war politics. 

As an opponent of General 
Santa Anna, he suffered the political 
fate of one who dared to express his 
opinions, but he rendered his Gov- 
ernment many good services and for 
a time retired to the practice of law, 
winning a great name as a man of 
letters. He was one of the signers 
of the Declaration of Independence. 
He has filled many important offices, 
Congressman, Governor of one of 
the States and Director of the Na- 
tional School of Jurisprudence. He 
has devoted his life to his country 
and has met with the appreciation 
he so justly merits. 

The brotherly love that exists 
among these splendid administra- 
tors and the manner in which they 
co-operate in the government of 
their country, makes Mexico's Cab- 
inet conspicuous among those of 
Republics and the eyes of the great outer world are centred upon them with 
wonder and admiration. 




SENOR L1C. JUSTINO FERNANDEZ, MINISTER 
OF JUSTICE. 



THE CABINET 



155 



Congress granted permission for the officials of state to receive decorations 
from the monarchs of different nations. Besides the Grand Collar of Charles 111., 
which was conferred upon the President by the King of Spain, the Grand Collar 
of the Red Eagle was the honor sent to him by the Emperor of Germany, and 
the Order of the Imperial Dragon 
granted by the Emperor of China. 

Minister Enrique C. Creel was 
empowered to receive the decora- 
tion of the Imperial Order of the 
Double Dragon, first grade, third 
class (grand cross) conferred upon 
him by the Emperor of China; the 
Grand Cross of Isabella Catolica 
from the King of Spain; and the 
Grand Cross of the Order of the 
Crown of Prussia from the Em- 
peror of Germany. 

Minister Jose Yves Liman- 
tour, now absent in Europe, re- 
ceived the same Chinese decoration 
of the Double Dragon. 

Lie. Francisco Leon de la 
Barra, the Mexican ambassador at 
Washington, was decorated with 
the Double Chinese Dragon, double 
cordon. 

Sehor Francisco Gamboa, who 
has been for so many years the sub- 
secretary of Foreign Affairs, the 

Chinese decoration of the Double Dragon but of the first grade (grand cordon), 
also the Order of the German Red Eagle, second class with badge. 

Lieutenant-Colonel Porfirio Diaz, Jr., received also several distinguished 
decorations. 

Among the distinguished men who surround the President and have his confi- 
dence are Governor Guillermo de Landa y Escandon, Sehor Joaquin Don Casasus, 




THE LATE IGNACIO MAR1SCAL, MINISTER OF FOREIGN 
AFFAIRS FOR NEARLY FORTY YEARS. 



156 



MEXICO 



who was at one time the Mexican Ambassador at Washington; Senor Pimentel y 
Fagoaga, Sehor Pablo Macedo, and Sehor Rosendo Pineda. These gentlemen are 
all intellectual and progressive, and wield a great power in the affairs of the state. 
A peculiar custom of the country is the " Bando. " From time immemorial 
it has been the fashion in Mexico to proclaim publicly any changes in the 
government; this was the custom long before the day of newspapers, and is 
still followed, on instructions from the War Department. This is done in 
Mexico City, soon after the election of the President, in the following order. 
A division is organized consisting of two brigades, one of infantry and one of 
cavalry, accompanied by a light battery. The chief of staff is attended by an 
adjutant with two captains and three subalterns. The infantry brigade is 
commanded by its general, accompanied by two captains and two subalterns. 
The cavalry brigade is led by its general, a major, two captains, and two sub- 
alterns; and a platoon of mounted gendarmes accompanies both generals. The 
" Bando " is inaugurated at nine in the morning. The aldermen and the city notary 
accompany the military parade in carriages, affixing the proclamation at certain 
street corners, and otherwise making known the result of the presidential election 
to the inhabitants of the city, with proper formalities and the pomp and circum- 
stance of military parade. This is a curious and highly interesting custom. 




CORRIDOR OF THE NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING. 




COLONIA JUAREZ. 



CHAPTER VIII 



THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 



MEXICO has reached the pinnacle of her glory as a metropolis, with her 
palatial buildings, her public offices and her illustrious men in whose hands 
rests the administration of a great nation. It is an established fact that there 
are many circumstances which powerfully contribute both toward the develop- 
ment of a country's material resources and its advancement on the high road 
to civilization, but at the same time it must not be denied that there are neces- 
sary men whose character and ability determine a marked progress on a city's 
history and whose brilliant career and worthy deeds impress their seal on the 
historical period that witnesses their success. 

In 1893, the Superior Council of the Government of the Federal District 
was formed. The important offices were appointed by the President and are 

held by three distinguished statesmen to whom the Capital City owes much of 

159 



160 MEXICO 

its progress and advancement: Honorable Guillermo De Landa y Escandon, 
the President of this Council, which gives him the title of Governor; Senor 
Guillermo Beltran y Puga, Director General of Public Works; and Sehor 
Doctor Eduardo Liceago, Director General of the Board of Health. 

This Superior Council is the principal factor in bringing about the actual 
improvement of the city. Public parks and gardens, noble buildings, modern 
lighting equipment, sewerage, streets and avenues, and order and discipline 
have made Mexico the best regulated city in the world. It is Paris with its 
beauty and light, London with its busy thoroughfares, Madrid with its color and 
picturesqueness, and Mexico City alone with its unique characteristics that 
stand out like a glowing banner of triumph. The population of this city has 
greatly increased within the past decade. The French, German, Italian, English 
and American colonies are steadily growing. The modern residential section 
is very beautiful, homes being erected in a new and pretty style, with gardens 
of flowers, while the streets are paved and double rows of trees make the avenues 
on which they are built very attractive. Little parks intersperse and fountains 
surrounded by tropical plants dot the city, giving it a picturesque appearance. 

While Mexico is a modern city, it is not without its charms as a former 
Aztec capital. With all its marked advancement from centuries of paganism 
it still holds some of the marks of those times. The aqueduct built in the 
time of Montezuma, while no longer needed in the vast city, is still retained in 
part as a recuerdo of former days. 

There is a romantic side of the nature of all Mexicans, who never forget 
the influences of ancient times, and have kept many relics of the oldest civiliza- 
tion of the continent, that enshroud this modern city with a poetic drapery of 
antiquity, giving it a charm that is irresistible. It has been said that nowhere 
in the world can a more splendid scene be presented than the first view of 
Mexico City. Against a magnificent sky that defies all attempts of the 
painter's art are outlined domes and spires. Belfrys and towers mark the 
numerous churches and palaces and the background of tall sierras and lakes all 
make a picture never to be forgotten. Switzerland furnishes no more grandeur, 
England and France show no more beautiful villages, all typical of this great 
wonder-country. The wide, handsome streets are clean, electric lights and 
street cars are in every part of the city, the busy thoroughfares are alive to public 
interests, the fashionable districts with their flow of stately carriages, the people 



THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 



161 



in their Parisian as well as native dress, the Indian with his pack or his wares to 
sell, the call of the vendor as he passes the doorway — all go toward adding 
interest and charm. 

The Castle of Chapultepec, one part of which is a National Military Acad- 
emy, and the other part the summer home of the President, towers two hundred 
feet above a grove of ancient cypress 
trees. It was built in the time of 
the Viceroy Galvan in the fifteenth 
century, and stands on a mass of 
rock on which remain signs of Aztec 
carvings. From this point the great 
valley of Anahuac unfolds itself to 
view, the noble, snow-capped volca- 
noes rise majestically above the 
clouds in the distance; lakes, out- 
spreading villages, fields of green 
and domes of multi-colored temples 
lie beneath the vision. The great 
cypress trees of the Bosque de Cha- 
pultepec stand stately and solemn, 
hoary with the flowing moss, and 
adorn the deep solitude. 

1 1 was here that the great Aztec 
chieftains met, held their councils 
and determined on their plan of 
defence. Here, beautiful Indian 
princesses kept their tryst with 

sturdy braves and in the springs that bubble in every nook and corner they sported 
in all their glory, unaware of the changes soon to come to their primitive lives. 

Beautiful avenues lead to the Castle, winding around the ascent, and from 
salient walls and parapets the bugle call echoes throughout the forest. It is on 
these avenues that automobiles and magnificent liveries are seen in the after- 
noon social parade. 

Tenochtitlan, which was afterward changed to Mexico, after the God of 
War, Mexitla, was described by Cortes as being a very large and well populated 




SENOR DON GUILLERMO DE LANDA Y ESCANDON, 
GOVERNOR OF THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 



162 MEXICO 

city. There were imperial palaces, temples of high priests, important public 
buildings, and many handsome dwellings. 

From a razed city of the reign of Montezuma, Cortes and the nobles of 
Spain had great ambition to make it a beautiful metropolis and some of the 
buildings now form a most interesting feature of the Capital. On the site of 
the Aztec monarch's palace, with its hundred rooms, was laid the foundation 
of the Cathedral, which stands to-day a magnificent structure of pinkish-gray 
stone, with marble altars, priceless paintings and rich tapestries. It is five 
hundred and twenty feet long, and four hundred and twenty feet wide, and the 
plan is a Latin cross. It was estimated by a Spanish historian that over sixty 
thousand men had perished in human sacrifices upon its site. When these mas- 
sive foundation stones were laid, Elizabeth was Queen of England; Philip II. 
reigned over Spain, Charles IX. in France, Cervantes was writing Don Quixote, 
Titian and Paul Veronese were painting their masterpieces; the Turks were over- 
running the Plains of Hungary with the intention of wiping Christendom out 
of existence. 

Poland was a mighty empire extending from the Baltic to the Black Sea. 
Sir Francis Drake was just beginning his career as a navigator. The first 
pipe-full of tobacco had not been smoked in Europe; there were no telescopes; 
Shakespeare and Spenser, Beaumont and Fletcher, Ben Johnson and Bacon, 
were in their prime; and Russia was a savage and insignificant power. 

Passing through the Cathedral, on either side there are different apart- 
ments filled from floor to ceiling with paintings, statues, vases, huge candle- 
sticks, waiters and a host of other articles of gold and silver. This too, is only 
the everyday display of articles of least value; the more costly ones are stored 
away in chests and closets. 

The National Palace is a relic of the days of Cortes and was improved in 
the course of time by the Count De Revillagigedo and others who reigned after 
him did much toward beautifying it. It is now the official home of the Presi- 
dent and other Government Officials; the Secretary of Finance, the War De- 
partment, Federal Treasury, and Public Archives. The Central Meteorological 
Observatory is on the A\otea, and the National Museum and Academy of San 
Carlos form another part of this great edifice. In this palace the President of 
the Republic receives his Ministers and the people and on the days of his public 
receptions the poorest persons meet with a courteous and patient audience. 



THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 



163 



The Municipal Palace is a splendid remodeled structure where the Governor of 
the Federal District has his executive office. Its halls and salons contain 
priceless paintings of the viceroys and Mexican patriots. It is here that all 
the affairs pertaining to the City Government are conducted, and the Honorable 
Governor holds his public receptions, and where petitions are heard. Governor 
De Landa has proved himself an able governor and conducts the City Govern- 
ment with extreme rigor. He has caused manv reforms and controls with an 




HOME OF GOVERNOR LANDA Y ESCANDON. 



iron will everything that comes under his regime. He takes the interests of the 
people to heart, he makes his city a noted metropolis, condemns and wipes out 
vices, corrects irregularities. The sanitary conditions of the shops and the excel- 
lent police force, said to be the best regulated in the world, owe their reputation 
to the indefatigable work of Governor De Landa y Escandon. He has a system 
of controlling traffic to such an extent that the busy hour finds the streets clear 
of congestion, an example set by this official in the government of a city that 
could well be imitated by others. In his splendid reception hall the Governor 
receives all classes of people. Here great ladies and military men rub elbows 



164 MEXICO 

with the laborer, and his reception of them all is characterized by exceeding good 
fellowship and courtesy. 

He receives the poorer classes who fall at his feet with petitions of mercy, 
perhaps on the imprisonment of a son or father, and he reassures and consoles, 
many times giving aid from his own purse, and makes personal investigation 
of cases brought before him, when others of his exalted position might casually 
pass them by unheeded. He has established houses of correction, one for boys 
at Tlalpam, and one for girls at Coyoacan, and the results of this benevolent 
work have been most encouraging to Governor De Landa. In years gone by, 
drunkenness and vice were rampant in the city through the excessive use of 
pulque, which was sold extensively, and many crimes resulted from this, but 
since his election as Governor all of this has been stamped out, and the drink 
that stimulates the mind of the laborer is now sold in moderation ; and the Anti- 
Gambling Act, passed and put into execution in the early days of his adminis- 
tration, has proved a great blessing to the middle class. An intimate knowledge 
of this Governor's character proves that all this interest in the welfare of his 
people and his city is inspired not by love of notoriety, for he is very modest in 
his work of reform. The poor and lowly worship him, the mighty respect him, 
and it is to this man that Mexico owes much of its greatness. 

The Museo Nacional is in point of antiquarian value the place of chief 
interest in the capital. Here are preserved the principal discovered records 
of prehistoric Mexico; the story of the original inhabitants in stone and on paper 
of the Maguey plant; here too are very many relics of the periods of the con- 
querors and the viceroys. 

The museum collection originated in a department of the university, which 
was closed in 1865. The interest taken by the government in the archaeology 
of Mexico has led to many important discoveries during the last twenty years, 
and by virtue of the law of national ownership in all antiquities found within 
the republic the museum is gathering all discovered records of the ancient people 
and country. 

Among the Aztec relics of chief interest are the sacrificial and calendar 
stones. There are here also many monoliths of large size, types of deities wor- 
shipped by the ancient Mexican. Of these the idol known as the Goddess 
of Water is colossal being eleven feet high and weighing nearly twenty tons. 
It came from Teotihuacan, near the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon. Another 



THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 



165 




THE NEW LEGISLATIVE PALACE. 



hideous idol is that of Huizilopochtli the War God which is ten feet high 
and three in diameter. The sculptures on these idols are very elaborate. 
Chacmol, the God of Fire, 
claimed also as the Toltec 
Deity Tlaloc, is a symmetri- 
cal figure in stone, recum- 
bent, lying on its back and 
holding in both hands that 
meet on the stomach a cir- 
cular disk emblematic of the 
sun. There is a colossal 
head in serpentine said by 
some authorities to be the 
Goddess Centeotl, by others 
to be related to the Aztec 
calendar as evidenced by the 
shell sculptures, of which 
there are thirteen in front of the cap and twenty at the back respectively indicat- 
ing, perhaps, the thirteen sacred days and the twenty civil days of the month. 

The great temple of Tenochtitlan was surrounded by a stone wall in which 
was the wall of serpents, or cohuatepantli. Two of the heads of these serpents, 
colossal in size, are among the relics of the ancient Aztec; so is the "feathered 
serpent, " or Quetzalcoatl, a sculpture clearly indicating a coiled reptile. Of this 
latter many smaller examples have been found in various parts of Mexico. 
The tradition of Quetzalcoatl, the good teacher, who was fair of complexion and 
wore a long beard, and who prophesied the coming of the white men is elsewhere 
mentioned. Aztec arms, and missiles and armor and domestic articles and imple- 
ments offer object lessons of prehistoric life of great service to the student and 
of fascinating interest to all. Here is a shield worn by Montezuma made of 
carefully quilted cotton; there the strange drum huehuetl, whose sinister sounds 
carried fear to the Spaniards ; here the vicious looking sword with four long blades 
set in the wooden staff on each of its faces, blades of obsidian, so keen that as 
Bernal Diaz wrote, they cut off a horse's head clean. 

Then there are the pinturas or picture writings, of which many are preserved. 
One of the most curious is an ancient Mexican painting of the Deluge, and the 



166 MEXICO 

dove is there with the olive branch ; their tradition of this event largely agreeing 
with the Scriptural narration. 

Of the Spanish period, there is the armor of Cortes — a very precious treasure, 
priceless indeed, for it was worn by him in all his wonderful battles — the banner 
of the Conquistadores, arms of soldiers, a helmet and cuirass of the Tonatiuh — 
Pedro de Alvarado — and portraits of viceroys. But the exhibit most venerated 
among such memorials is the Banner of our Lady of Guadalupe, which Hidalgo 
took from the Santuario of Atotonilco on that morning of September 16th, when 
he started out on his war of independence with his ragged patriot army and 
raised as his standard this banner. His musket and some other personal pos- 
sessions are here; also, contrasting with these are the state chariot of the Maxi- 
milian period and the magnificent and costly dinner service of the same period, 
which latter was permitted to be used at Juarez on the occasion" of the meeting of 
President Taft and General Diaz in October, 1909. 

The mystery of the ancient peoples, traces of whose culture invest them 
with uncommon interest; the romance of the conquest of powerful and well 
organized nations by a mere handful of invaders who were absolutely cut off 
from all communications and means of home support, yet who overthrew vast 
armies defending their own territories; the wonders of the land opened to the 
knowledge of the old world; the tale of its treasures transcending the exaggera- 
tion of fable; and finally, perhaps of greater interest than all else, the greatness 
of the republic established by patriot martyrs maintained by the prowess of 
heroes and at length cemented by a patriotism and wisdom that are the wonder, 
admiration and illumination of the world; these are among the thoughts 
aroused in the minds -of the musing visitor to this wonderful museum. 

The calendar stone was originally set in the great temple of Tenochtitlan, 
but on the destruction of the latter it remained buried beneath the ruins. On its 
discovery it was placed in one of the towers of the Cathedral and later, in 1860, 
was removed to the museum. It is a circular stone of porphyritic character 
about ten feet in diameter. Tradition asserts that this stone was one of a 
second pair prepared, the first having broken down the bridge of Xoloc and 
lost in the lake. The stone was engraved by order of Axayacatl, and at its 
dedication seven hundred and twenty-eight victims were sacrificed. The hiero- 
glyphs that cover its surface are still only a matter of surmise, though the numeral 
system of the earlier races has been determined and great steps and considerable 



THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 



167 



advance has been made in determining the order in which the glyphs are to be 
read. The year was divided for civil purposes into three hundred and sixty-five 
days, eighteen months of twenty days and a supplemental month of five days 
after the eighteenth. Puzzling as seems the method of enumeration, the Maya 
priest could correctly calculate, as Thomas shows in his Study of the Manuscript 
Troatio, a period of twelve million three hundred and eighty-one thousand 




HOME OF VICE-PRESIDENT CORRAL. 



seven hundred and twenty-eight days, and determine the exact year, month and 
day that will be reached in such calculation. 

The general plan of this stone is as follows: A relief sculpture of a human 
head with the tongue protruded is in the centre, about this are five concentric 
circles of hieroglyphs, the symbols marking the various divisions of time in the 
ancient Mexican calendar. 

The sacrificial stone is not difficult to associate. Its shape and sculptures 
around and upon it indicate its ghastly use. In shape it is similar to the calen- 
dar stone, circular, eight feet in diameter and four in height; but the sinister 
basin hollowed out in the top and the canal leading therefrom to the groove 



168 MEXICO 

at the edge also lead to the conclusion that on this stone the victims of the Aztecs 
were laid and killed by the priests in sacrifice. The sculptured figures represent 
the victims of conquering chiefs being dragged by the hair to the place of sacrifice. 
This monumental stone was found in 1791, near the cathedral and was doomed 
for the pile of paving stones when its archaeological value was discovered and the 
vandal's hand was stayed. It is the best sculptured of the antiquities of Mexico. 

Among the places of prominent interest is the Monte de Piedad, an institu- 
tion almost singular to Mexico, having regard to its methods and the extent of its 
operations. This great national pawn shop was founded in 1774, by the Conde 
de Regla. He endowed the institution with a gift of over three hundred thou- 
sand dollars and the crown approving the institution, business began in 1776, 
in the old College San Pedro y Pablo. The plan was an eleemosynary one, 
complementary to the many other charities of the Count. No interest was 
charged on loans; an arrangement intended to protect the poor from the exac- 
tions of the usurers; instead it was expected that the borrower on repaying his 
loan would make some gift in aid of charity. 

For three-quarters of a century the profits were appropriated to the payment 
of masses for the repose of the soul of the founder, but for the last half a century 
they have been used in establishing branch institutions in leading cities. 

It is a fine building and occupies the site of one of Cortes's palaces. The 
staircases are hewn out of huge blocks of lava from Popocatepetl and orna- 
menting the windows and doors are the hideous heads placed by Cortes in his 
earlier palace edifice. 

The Artillery Museum is under the Department of War, and is a deposi- 
tory of all historic relics of Mexico's great events. It was founded fifteen years 
ago and is full of interesting data. The patio is roofed with steel and glass and 
is converted into an exhibition hall. The high walls are ornamented with alto- 
reliefs of the Aztec kings. These bronzes are the work of the artist, Jesus F. 
Contreras, and are said to be the finest in Mexico. 

There is a large picture of Hidalgo with the flag- used in battle, and a large 
faded flag used by Cortes. Here you can see the gold pen with which General 
Escobedo wrote the death sentence of Maximilian, the sword of the Emperor 
and the brilliant uniform of General Escobedo, complete with helmet and sword. 
There is also a splendid library which contains many volumes devoted to mili- 
tary science. 



THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 169 

The School of Mines, La Minera, occupies a palatial structure erected at a 
cost of two hundred thousand dollars in 1813. . The school was founded in 1777, 
through the munificence, chiefly, of Senor Velasquez de Leon and Lucas de 
Lasaga. The splendid edifice is the work of Manuel Tolsa whose master hand 
is seen in the great columned galleries, the noble pillars, stairways and patios. 
The chapel is an exquisite work, here is a magnificent bronze altar and the lofty 




THE PALACE OF MINES. 



ceilings are richly ornamented with frescoes by Rafael Jimeno. The collection 
of minerals is very valuable and extensive and varied, and forces on the most 
thoughtless visitor a sense of the immense mineral resources of Mexico. An 
exhibit of much interest is the meteoric stones, some of which weigh tons, that 
rest under the front portal. These uncanny visitants reached earth in various 
parts of the republic. 

The Plaza de la Constitucion, or Zocalo, as it is called, is the centre of the 
great city. On this spot stood one of the great Aztec temples, erected to the deity 
Huitzilopochtli, where human sacrifices were daily offered. One of the fiercest 



170 MEXICO 

battles ever fought between the forces of Cortes and the Aztecs took place on 
this spot. It is surrounded by most pretentious buildings. Fifty years ago 
this was the social centre of the city and a principal place of gathering in the 
evening for families who, as they do now, in the smaller cities, donned their 
most becoming toilettes, promenaded and met their friends, and enjoyed the 
sweet and soulful music for which the Mexicans are so noted. Now the poorer 
class enjoys this privilege with the military band discoursing the same beautiful 
strains as if the gayer and higher world was the audience. Starting from this 
point one can drive straight to the Castle of Chapultepec, a distance of three 
miles, passing through the principal thoroughfare of San Francisco, with its 
array of wonderful old churches and time-stained palaces now turned into busi- 
ness houses. 

Here stands in its solemn dignity the old Palace of Iturbide, richly carved 
and retaining much of the beauty of the days when it was built by the Emperor 
Augustin I. This is now one of the principal hotels of the city, a rendezvous for 
tourists and students of the country. The Alameda, with its grand old trees, 
its beautiful walks and its fountains dancing in the sunlight and shade, was once 
a fashionable park. On Sundays and days of fiesta it was the custom of Mexican 
society to meet there after church, and enjoy music and social intercourse. 
Many a charming love affair has grown out of these meetings and Mexico is full 
of beautiful romances. 

Amusement is varied and Mexicans freely embrace the opportunity for 
diversion. The theatres are numerous and of considerable importance, as well 
in the life of the people as architecturally. The chief are the Teatro Principal 
and the Virginia Fabregas; the latter enjoyed the distinction of being the most 
fashionable theatre until the New Opera House was constructed. It was the 
home of Italian and French opera and on its stage have been presented the best 
of Spanish and Mexican dramatic productions. 

The Folies Bergeres is a new theatre lately opened, and is one of the best 
in Mexico. 

The Arbeu is one of the popular playhouses. The New National Theatre is 
the work of the noted Italian architect Adamo Boari, and in beauty and design 
will equal any playhouse in the world. It is of a modern steel construction and 
the first national theatre absolutely fireproof. The site is one of great historical 
value as it was on this spot that Cortes retreated on the Noche Triste. It covers 



THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 



171 



a square on Avenida Juarez and is built next to the Alameda and made to har- 
monize with it. The front is magnificent with statues, flowers and fountains. 
On each side terraces lead up to the entrances. The theatre is surrounded 
by lawns and gardens to be kept always green and beautiful. On each side 
of the theatre is a carriage entrance. The balconies are supported by great 




SAN FRANCISCO STREET. 



marble pillars and columns representing the lyric muse. The interior decorations 
are exquisite and harmonious in effect. Italian marble and Mexican onyx are 
seen everywhere. 

The Frontons located in many parts of the city are devoted to the favor- 
ite Mexican ball game. This sport is ancient in Mexico, it was a favorite 
pastime of the Aztecs; it was almost a religious custom as the places devoted 
to the games were consecrated by the priests and the victors were held in very 
high regard. 



172 



MEXICO 




Racing is a favorite diversion in Mexico. There are two fine tracks at 
Indianilla and Penon. Stakes and purses are furnished by the Jockey Club and 

prizes are provided by the Ayunta- 
miento and the Department of 
Fomento of the federal govern- 
ment. 

The characteristic, popular 
national sport is the bull-fight, 
which in spite of spasmodic efforts 
to displace it still continues to 
chain the interest and arouse the 
enthusiasm of the people. 

The Paseo de la Reforma, 
once a country road, was im- 
proved by the Emperor Maxi- 
milian. On this avenue a glitter- 
ing wealth of equipages, spirited 
horses and automobiles, are seen 
morning and evening. The glow- 
ing sunshine, the contrasting nature-colors in the parks and along the sidewalks 
add a permanent charm and nothing is more pleasing than seeing Mexican society 
on dias de fiesta, passing back and forth, vivacious, beautiful and elegant. 
Leading into this avenue are beautiful streets of fashionable homes and in no city 
of the world are seen more beautiful residences than are found here. Elegance 
and simplicity, no gaudy display, the Mexican's home is his palace, and while the 
exterior is sometimes very simple, the interior, with its courtyard of beautiful 
flowers and palms, its salas with magnificent appointments and paintings from 
great masters is not to be excelled anywhere. The exquisite taste of the Mexicans 
is always in evidence. The women are gowned in the latest Parisian toilettes, 
their jewels are as precious as those of crowned heads and their entertainments 
are a glittering and beautiful display of wealth and elegance. 

The General Lunatic Asylum is situated in La Castaneda, very near the 
little suburb of Mixcoac. It is one of the most picturesque spots in the Federal 
District. Its construction was directed by Lieutenant-Colonel Porfirio Diaz, Jr., 
son of the President. It has all the advantages of a luxurious home and has many 



POLICE HEADQUARTERS. 



THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 



173 



large pavilions. These are modern structures of white stone and cement. The 
grounds are beautifully laid out with parks, making it one of the attractive 
features of the little village. 

In Mixcoac the Working Man's Colony is also a monument to the enter- 
prise of Colonel Diaz. He has built modern, sanitary homes at nominal rentals, 
gives each man a certain amount of land to till, offers prizes of free occupancy 
to the most successful and in this way the improvident peon is taught a way 
to earn a living for himself and family. These houses are built on a most 
attractive plan; bathrooms, bedrooms, parlors and kitchens, unlike the squalid 
huts that most of the poverty-stricken Indians occupy. It is a plan that has 
met with great success and the products of some of the gardens have demon- 
strated the fact that the Mexican Indian is a farmer by nature, and it is thought 
that this movement will grow and be a valuable aid to that class. 

San Angel, Coyoacan and San Augustin, are extremely pretty villages in 
the vicinity of the lake. 

Coyoacan is almost a continuation of San Angel. Both villages serve as 
a popular summer resort for the rich dwellers in the City of Mexico. It was 
at this place that Cortes 
took up his residence for 
several months after the 
total destruction of the an- 
cient Tenochtitlan. Here 
he founded a. convent, too; 
and in his last will and 
testament he expressed a 
desire to be buried here, in 
whatever part of the world 
he should end his days. 
This request was not com- 
plied with. 

Coyoacan was always 
Cortes's favorite village, 

and it is even now one of the prettiest in Mexico, having one of the handsomest 
village churches in that country. 

The Penon baths are one of the great attractions of Mexico. 




AMERICAN EMBASSY. 



174 



MEXICO 



These boiling springs are said to contain sulphate of lime, carbonic acid, and 
muriate of soda, and the I ndians make salt in their neighborhood much as they did 

in the time of Montezuma, with the differ- 
ence, as Humboldt informs us, that they 
use copper caldrons, while their ancestors 
used vessels of clay. The solitary-looking 
baths are ornamented with odd-looking 
heads of cats and monkeys, which grin 
upon you with a mixture of the sinister 
and facetious that is rather appalling. 

On one of the sites where these min- 
eral springs are to be found still stands a 
little church or chapel which dates back 
to the beginning of the colonial period, 
and suggests that, like the Pocito de 
Guadalupe, the Penon waters may have 
been used, with prayer and supplication, 
for effecting miraculous cures. 

La Viga and the floating gardens or 
markets form another diverting and in- 
tensely interesting phase of life in this 
unique and poetic land. The canal 
makes a circle of over eight miles, and 
presents a scene of unequalled activity 
and unusual features. One need not look for gardens, as the name suggests, but 
rather for an aquatic market-place. The gardens are made up of countless boats 
in motion, filled with every imaginable growth of farm, orchard and vineyard, 
with garden flowers, fruits, chickens, birds, and all other living and growing 
things that can be sold. As soon as one leaves the car the crowd surges around 
imploring the hire of their boats. 

The boatmen use only one long oar, with which they pole or scull the craft 
along. In no other way can be gained so accurate an idea of the varied popu- 
lation of Mexico; in no other way can so many charming effects in costume and 
personal ornamentation be studied; and certainly nowhere else can such a mar- 
vellous array of products of this most marvellous of all countries be seen. 




POLICEMAN. 



THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 



175 



Santa Anita is a peculiar little spot, Mexican in every detail, and a favorite 
pleasure-resort for the people of Mexico City. It is a town of reed-thatched 
houses, and everywhere there is a tempt- 
ing odor of Mexican culinary dainties. 

Pulque may be had in various won- 
derful and insidious styles in which the 
original flavor is merged in something 
far more agreeable. 

At Ixtacalco arechinampas, with less 
gayety. A fine old stone bridge crosses 
the canal at this point, with the ruins of a 
chapel at the water's edge, where in the old 
days the passing boatman muttered an 
ave and deposited an offering to the patron 
saint, in the hope that good luck would 
follow him on his voyage and that his 
vegetables would sell for a few more tlacos 
than usual. In front of the church, which 
is dedicated to San Matias and which has 
a Franciscan foundation more than three 
hundred years old, is the customary little 
plaza with a fountain of running water. 

There is a fascination about the capi- 
tal of Mexico which is peculiar. Western 

progress in science, art, life, fashions, architecture, government, and facilities 
and attractions are linked with customs foreign to the life of Europe and charac- 
teristics exclusively Mexican. In its splendid avenues and boulevards, mag- 
nificent buildings, the lighting and transportation, it vies with European and 
American cities. It is most cosmopolitan, yet its own charm hangs over all. 
The churches suggest the Moorish influence. Its floral beauties, in size and 
color matchless, its rich and peculiar foliage, its wonderful sky, its great guard- 
ian mountains, its lakes, that recall the most romantic stories; the historic 
wonders of the city and its neighborhood; the recollection of great struggles 
that overthrew successively the cultures of the several peoples that dwelt in the 
Valley of Anahuac and whose characteristics are stamped on the people of the 




MEXICAN LETTER CARRIER. 



176 



MEXICO 



present city; nowhere can the picture be duplicated. There is an inexpress- 
ible imprint in nature and art that makes Mexico singular. It is found in its 
buildings, solid, convenient and of even proportions, in styles wonderfully varied 
but generally ornate. It is pointed out in its flowers, shrubs and trees — the 
peculiar growth of the land; it is found in the costumes, customs of the people; 
it is found in the wonderful sky, the great mountains — a something unique in 
each feature and in the combination of all. 

The towering form of Popocatepetl fills the eastern view, its glistening snow 
covered crest rising above the level of the city ten thousand five hundred feet 
and almost eighteen thousand above the waters of the gulf, and the magnifi- 
cent Iztaccihuatl, sheltering and protecting the Valley of San Martin which 
spreads out in wonderful fertility at their base. Sublime grandeur is the most 
sober term descriptive of the magnificent setting of Mexico City. 



U' * * f ■ ■■'■ ^infl 1T 1 1 1 1 1 




FEDERAL PENITENTIARY. 




EMPEROR MONTEZUMA IN HIS PALANQUIN IN THE HISTORICAL PARADE. 



CHAPTER IX 



THE CENTENNIAL 



AFTER Mexico had thrown aside her burden of oppression, and had risen 
to the dignity of a well-governed nation, the powers of the world regarded 
her not without astonishment. After a half century of hardships came years of 
reconstruction and pacification. The greater difficulty of gaining faith in them- 
selves was surmounted by men who in their generalship gave the Mexicans that 
which they required more — a knowledge that they had a place in the world of 
great republics; and events of the past hundred years have demonstrated it. 

In the earlier days, after the reign of the viceroys was over, the Mexicans 
had to fight for their rights, which were overrun by highwaymen and guerrilla 
bands, and until a man could be found who would have the strength to cope with 

this situation there was no safety for life or property. With the advent of General 

179 



180 MEXICO 

Diaz all this changed. Mexico proudly stands before the world as one of the 
best regulated governments. 

The industrial and agricultural development of the country began with 
Juarez. But during the periods of foreign intervention the Mexicans had little 
heart for anything more than protecting their rights, for they had to make a 
noble stand, and the rich mines that had yielded without ceasing so many years 
were left unworked ; the broad, sun-kissed acres, which for centuries had furnished 
golden grain were neglected; the miner's pick and the farmer's plow lay rusting 
while the sword dripped with the blood of battle. This fairest country on the 
globe, despoiled by human greed for gold, has at last risen into proud promi- 
nence and when General Diaz assumed the Presidency, Mexico began to see the 
dawn of a great light. She needs no poet to sing her praises, she is her own 
colossal and imperishable monument, the base of which is planted on centuries 
gone by and the summit of which will raise its head in the enduring future. 

Mexico is free — free to enjoy without stint the fruits of the bounty she was 
forced to get through sacrifice, and having shed upon her dear soil the red blood 
that surged in the patriot's heart, the rulers of this great nation have by their 
sound judgment placed her foremost in the ranks of the world. During the reign 
of the viceroys when Spain was disporting herself in the garb of her riches, 
gained from her golden possessions in America, the Mexicans began to show signs 
of discontent, and occasional uprisings gave these petty kings a great deal of 
misgiving and concern. Foreigners were not permitted to enter the country, the 
Church had the monopoly of education, only Spaniards could hold lands and 
influential government offices and those great patriots who did all in their 
power to uplift their country and protect their people are revered by the Mexi- 
cans with a love that is almost divine. 

It was during the reign of Francisco Javier Venegas (1810 to 1816) that the 
revolutionary period began, and from that time the power of Spain declined. 
Before long the country was in the throes of war which Spanish troops could not 
quell. A great man appeared from the mountains. He was a lowly priest, living 
in obscurity ministering to the wants of his little band of Indian Christians. 
His followers knew him to represent God and His teachings and his influence 
among them was very great. He implanted in the minds of the simple people 
that Mexico must be free to worship, free to govern. Foreign wars and civil 
dissension followed the first and noble stand of this patriot. The Indians were 



THE CENTENNIAL 181 

incited by him to open rebellion and in the midst of excitement a great bell 
hanging in one of the church towers was rung proclaiming liberty or death. 
The deep, mellow tones from this old cathedral inspired every Mexican with the 
desire for a liberty that meant more than a proclamation, and for many years 
there was a bitter war in which advanced to the front many brave men whose 
names are graven in the history of Mexico's great deeds — Allende, Aldama, 
Jimenez, Guerrero all seemed alive to the needs of their beloved country. 
They cast their whole souls into the cause for freedom and gave their precious 
lives to Mexico. This war was not without its romances as well as its tragedies. 

Like the stories of the Roman warriors, like the Judas who betrayed his 
Christ, Hidalgo was given into the hands of the enemy by a friend, a Spaniard 
named Mariano Galvan, on whose head many times had rested the hands of the 
patriot priest in blessing. 

Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, a Mestizo Indian, also a Catholic priest, 
called a congress in 1813, and in November declared Mexico independent. 
He was a most intrepid fighter and was known as a " Hero of a Hundred Battles." 

The centennial festivities were as much in honor of the heroes of the wars 
as of the growth and progress of the country. The year 1910, celebrated the first 
century of Mexico's political emancipation. She followed the natural outburst 
of her pride in the realization of her wonderful growth during the past century. 
For she knows that no country has been beset with more unfortunate events 
that tended to retard rather than promote her advancement, and when she 
lifted her proud head in her own triumphant recognition she invited the world 
to come and see the results of her century of golden harvest. 

Invitations were sent by the president to every foreign monarch and ruler, 
who, excepting the King of England, whose mourning for the late King, Albert 
Edward, prevented, sent special ambassadors to be the guests of Mexico for the 
month of September. So magnificent were the entertainments given, so great 
was the display of wealth and refinement that those who had scant knowledge 
of what Mexico really is, returned to their homes much enlightened. Mexico has 
long been looked upon as a faraway land of mystery, with nothing to offer be- 
yond relics and romances; but here they found science, art, advancement, men 
and women who could hold their own in the world of brilliancy — here they found 
a warm hospitality, and gathered together in this great capital, like a big happy 
family, they grew to know each other like brothers. Thus did Mexico, in 



182 



MEXICO 




bringing together so many repre- 
sentatives of foreign lands, create 
good feeling that will spread in many 
directions. 

A tribute should be paid to 
Mayor Fernando Pimentel y Fagoago 
the president of the National Com- 
mission, Governor de Landa y Escan- 
don, and the other members who 
planned this wonderful entertain- 
ment, which will go down in history 
as one of the greatest jubilees that 
ever took place. Thirty days of 
hospitality to the world! It was an 
unheard of generosity and those for- 
eign envoys who carried back reports 
of it to their monarchs must have 
been very much impressed with it 
all. The guests of the nation were 
treated with every consideration and 
courtesy and their wants attended to 
with remarkable forethought. They 
were met at the borders and ports 
and escorted with all honor to Mexico 
by a selected body of society's most 
brilliant men and the stations along 
the line of travel were festooned with 
the national colors. Each city sent 
delegates to meet the trains and speed 
them on their way to the capital. It 
was like a scene of grandeur of the 
days when kings went visiting, and 
not one representative of his ruler 
went from Mexico without knowing the full measure of the manner of Mexico's 
whole-souled hospitality. At the capital, a protocol of ladies and gentlemen, 



MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE. 



THE CENTENNIAL 183 

met the special trains bearing the foreign delegates and conveyed them in all 
honor to their abodes, which were luxuriously furnished, some of them being 
homes of citizens and officials. Fresh flowers were sent each day, automobiles, 
carriages and servants were furnished and everything the heart could desire 
was at the disposal of these visitors during the Centennial. President Taft 
sent a special commission. The distinguished gentlemen were selected for 
their fitness to represent the United States. They were Special Ambassador 
Honorable Curtis Guild; Congressman David J. Foster; Senator Overman; 
Senator Coe I. Crawford; Congressman James R. Slayden; Representative 
George W. Fairchild; Justice James E. Girard; General Harrison Gray Otis; 
and Colonel Rook. These gentlemen occupied the Cobian Palace, one of the 
most magnificent mansions in the capital city. 

The other Envoys were the Marquis de Polavieja, Special Ambassador of 
Spain; Monsieur Paul Lefaivre and Admiral de la Croix de Castries, Special 
Ambassadors of France; Marquis di Bugano, of Italy; Special Envoy Carl 
Buenz, of Germany; Chinese Ambassador, Chang Yin Tang; Japanese Ambassa- 
dor, Baron Uchida; Special Ambassadors from Chili, Honorable Carlos Suber- 
caezeaux and General Juan de Dios Vial Guzman; Special Minister from Brazil, 
Don Antonio do Fontaura Xavier; Special Minister from Costa Rica, Honorable 
Joaquin Calvo; Special Portuguese Ambassador, Visconte de Alte; Peruvian 
Special Ambassador, Sefior Fedrico Alfonse Pezet; Special Envoy from Holland, 
Jankherr J. Loudon; Colombian Minister, Sehor C. de Corrodor Latorre; Cuban 
Special Envoy, Honorable Loinaz del Castillo; Guatemalan Minister, Dr. Juan 
Ortega; Salvadorian Minister, Sehor Don Jose Antonio Rodriguez; Honduran 
Envoy, Sefior Don Salvador Cordova; Bolivian Minister, Sehor Don Santiago 
Arguello; Austro-Hungarian Minister, Count Maximilian Hadik; Russian Envoy, 
Honorable Andre Stalewski; Belgian Envoy, Monsieur George Allart; Norwegian 
Envoy, Honorable Michael Lio; Ecuadorian Special Envoy, Sefior Don Leopoldo 
Pino; Swiss Envoy, Mr. Enrique Perret; Venezuelan Delegate, Sehor Don 
Eduardo Urdaneta; Argentine Special Envoys, Sehor Don Jacinto Garcia and 
General Enrique Fleiss, Commander of the Warship Presidente Sarmiento; the 
resident Spanish Minister, Sehor Bernardo J. Cologan y Cologan represented 
Greece. 

One of the first ceremonies was the opening of the lunatic asylum at Mixcoac, 
one of the most splendid modern edifices erected in Mexico. The president, bearing 



184 



MEXICO 



his eighty years with all the strength and vigor of a man of forty, conducted 
the formalities with great dignity and poise. Surrounded by representative men 
of all the world, he stood out among them a figure never to be forgotten. 

All public buildings finished or nearing completion were formally dedicated 
during this eventful month, each cabinet minister and official taking an important 
part in the ceremonies. Speeches that glided from the lips of orators from every 
clime seemed to mingle with the golden atmosphere, carrying with them a spirit 




PRIESTS AND SERVANTS OF CORTES IN THE HISTORICAL PARADE. 



of good feeling. The first ten days of the Centennial were devoted to receiving 
the credentials of the foreign delegates, and impressive official ceremonies ap- 
propriate to the occasion, but from the first day of the month the president and 
his colleagues went through the ceremonies of dedication, laying corner stones 
and opening schools and various enterprises. The new Federal Legislative 
palace, which is one of the most magnificent structures in America, was dedi- 
cated in the presence of many foreign diplomats. 

A flag parade of school children dressed in clothes made by the society 
women of Mexico was one of the most interesting processions, because of the 



THE CENTENNIAL 185 

youth of the participants. Notable among the events of the Centennial was the 
opening of the University of Mexico in the presence of General Diaz and other 
high officials and distinguished foreign educators. In an unostentatious way 
the ceremonies began with strains of the national anthem resounding throughout 
the large amphitheatre of the National Preparatory School. Special delegates 
of foreign universities with the caps and gowns of their respective institutions 
of learning were present, among them, Dr. James Baldwin, representative of 
Oxford University; Licenciado Manuel Garcia Alvarez, a delegate from the 
University of Oviedo, Spain; Doctors Lendian and Dehigo y Mestre, of the 
University of Havana; Professor Ernest Martinenche of the University of Paris, 
founded in 1810; Dr. Benjamin Ide Wheeler, President of the University of 
California, one of the best educators of the United States; the American Commis- 
sion and ambassadors from other countries. 

Before a brilliant assemblage of men and women the Minister of Educa- 
tion and Belles Artes, Sehor Don Justo Sierra, read a splendid paper treating 
of the subject of education of the youth of Mexico, who must be fitted to 
receive the reins of the government, which sooner or later must fall to them. 
It was a splendid oration, and was followed by a response from the Presi- 
dent who in a few dignified words of encouragement and praise pronounced 
the University of Mexico a thing of reality, to endure forever. Other addresses 
followed and the dedication of the University of Mexico passed into" the annals 
of history. 

The National School of Agriculture was opened and was one of the most 
interesting of the ceremonies of the Centennial, being of importance for the 
advancement and development of agricultural resources. An exhibition of live 
stock in connection with this showed fine breeds of cattle and horses from all 
parts of the republic. 

A congress of education in the School of Arts and Crafts for men held its 
session with important delegates from all the States of Mexico. The -new Normal 
Schools for men and for women, and some high schools were opened and the new 
seismological station was dedicated during the earlier days of the celebration. 
Following the dedication of monuments of industry and statues, came fiestas of 
every kind, in which Mexican women in all their splendor of jewels and toilettes 
did their part in showing the world something of the magnificence of their 
entertainments. 



186 



MEXICO 



One of the beautiful tributes paid to President and Mrs. Diaz during the 
festivities was a musicale given at the Castle of Chapultepec by La Estudiantina 
musical club of young people. 

Public and private balls, free theatres and bull-fights for the people, fire- 
works, electrical displays and parades of every kind were the order of this 
month of continued festivity. 




)F THE HISTORICAL PARADE. 



President and Mrs. Diaz extended magnificent hospitality to the visiting 
ambassadors and their families, the diplomatic corps and officials, with a banquet 
at the National Palace. It was a brilliant function. The distinguished guests 
were received in the red hall. This is the historical room of the Palace, filled with 
old paintings of the battlefields and portraits of Mexican heroes. After the 
banquet the guests attended a gala opera performance in honor of the President. 

The national commission to entertain the visitors to the capital left nothing 
undone to make the people enjoy the great event, from the humblest of Indian 
peons to the representatives of the mightiest monarch. Thousands of working 
men were given employment during the preparations for the Centennial, and in 



THE CENTENNIAL 187 

addition to the payment given them, each man was presented with a fitting suit 
of clothes for the occasion. It would not be unusual, if the poorer classes were 
neglected during festivities of this kind, to have some discord among them. 
With a forethought, born of a natural tact, all this was regulated and the poor 
were furnished with entertainments with such wisdom that there was not a 
ripple of discontent during the great parades. 

Mexicans regard the national events of the past with great reverence and 
love and they enter into the spirit of hero worship whole-souled. They do not 
forget the trials and sacrifices of years; they won their right to be free and fought 
for their country, and having conquered their enemy, they can afford to be mag- 
nanimous. This was demonstrated by the kindly reception given the venerable 
Marquis de Polavieja, the special ambassador from the Court of Spain, who was 
received with great honors and given the greatest ovation ever accorded a for- 
eign visitor, on his arrival at the port of Vera Cruz, where three hundred years 
ago, the envoys of the Spanish Crown came to wrest from the people their pos- 
sessions and native land. All this has been forgotten and Spain with her great 
respect to the Mexican government sent her most distinguished noble to represent 
her. With him came a suite of royal personages bearing costly gifts and messages 
of goodwill from their sovereign. The uniform and portrait of Jose Maria Morelos, 
the intrepid hero of one hundred years ago, which was taken to Spain after the 
execution of the patriot, was returned to Mexico with all due solemnity and 
reverence and the Mexicans have a kindly appreciation of this delicate tribute. 

Drawn through the streets upon a gun-wagon draped with the flag of the 
nation, for which the patriot died, in a glass covered case, so arranged that 
thousands could view it, the faded and blood stained uniform was borne amid 
muffled drums and strains of martial music to the National Palace, where the 
President of Mexico was waiting with his Cabinet and a large assemblage of 
distinguished people to receive the precious relic. It was a most impressive 
sight and brought tears to the eyes of the multitude that stood on the streets, 
with hats in hand, to see men of military distinction and high official life walk- 
ing with slow step before the carriage that conveyed the sacred relic. Old 
warriors who had given their youth to the service of their country, men in 
the prime of life who were serving their country to the best of their ability, and 
youths full of the inspiration of patriotism, walked side by side with bared heads, 
while the soldiers and marines kept step with the solemn music. 



188 MEXICO 

This gift from a friendly country has cemented the cordial relations between 
Mexico and Spain. 

In the Hall of Ambassadors, the splendid representative of Spain made the 
presentation in these few well chosen words: 

"Mr. President — In the name of my august sovereign I have the high honor 
of delivering into the hands of your Excellency, that it may remain on Mexican 
territory, the portrait, the uniform, and other objects which were the property 
of General Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, which, as belonging to a great general 
and citizen, my country kept with great care for a long time, guarding them 
jealously in its museum of artillery. 

"His Majesty, King Alfonso XIII., wishes that your Excellency may see in 
this act, and with you all the noble Mexican people' the most complete expres- 
sion of the sincere satisfaction with which he and the Mother Spain associate 
themselves with your centenary of independence. You are to be praised for 
the greatness of your progress, and the rapid strides Mexico has made toward 
internal and international peace. 

"To-day, for this reason, the Mexican republic merits and possesses the 
respect, the esteem and the regard of all people. In her there shone, in past 
times, all the glories of the art of war, and now all the arts of peace, which have 
had brilliant development and expansion. 

"May God continue to dispense to her his favors. 

' ' These are the wishes of my King and the Mother Spain, proud of her daugh- 
ter, whom she embraces, on this momentous occasion, with all the affection of 
her soul and with all the memories of her great labor as the discoverer, explorer 
and colonizer of the Americas." 

The President with much feeling thanked the monarch of Spain in the name 
of his people and expressed appreciation for the relic so highly prized. 

At the conclusion of the ceremony the audience of brilliant men and women 
gave many "vivas" for the respective rulers and also for the venerable Marquis 
who had the honor of presenting the gift. The Grand collar of the Order of 
Carlos III. was conferred on General Diaz at another ceremony and a painting 
of Alfonso of Spain was unveiled. 

A marble tablet erected on the front of the Artillery Arsenal in the Cuidadela, 
in memory of the imprisonment of the patriot, Jose Maria Morelos, was un- 
veiled by the Governor of the Federal District, Sehor Don Guillermo de 



THE CENTENNIAL 



189 




NOBLEMEN WITH ESCORTS IN THE HISTORICAL PARADE. 



Landa y Escandon. Little children from the schools, dressed in white, assisted 
the Governor in this ceremony by singing the national anthem. The oration of 
the day was delivered by a 
noted attorney, Licenciado 
Isidro Fabela. 

The unveiling of the 
Monument of Independ- 
ence, with orations from 
many distinguished men, 
was one of the principal 
events of this month. This 
was built to commemorate 
the National Independence. 
It is an impressive looking 
column, some parts made 
in Mexican marble, sur- 
mounted with a bronze 

winged female figure. The plaster casts of the allegorical figures were made 
by native sculptors and sent to Italy, where the castings were made. The four 
figures on the lower pedestal represent Law, Progress, Resistance and Force. 

From the base rises a column, surrounding which are figures of the Heroes 
of the Independence. The central figure is of Hidalgo, and standing on each 
side are figures of Morelos and Guerrero. From this pedestal rises the shaft 
ten feet in diameter and sixty-seven feet high. It is the work of Antonio Rivas 
Mercado and was completed in 1910. 

One of the most significant ceremonies during this month was the unveiling 
of the statue of Benito Juarez, first president of the republic after the empire. 
Before a brilliant concourse of distinguished Mexicans and ambassadors, and the 
surviving members of the Juarez family, the president, with tears streaming, drew 
aside the canvas that hid the most fitting monument ever built in Mexico. It 
is of Doric style, constructed from Italian marble, severe and magnificent, typi- 
cal of the character of this great man. It is the work of the sculptor Lazaroni, 
after the design of Heredia, and seems to represent the true character of Juarez, 
whose intense patriotism and upright principles immortalized him. The sculp- 
ture represents Juarez between two allegorical figures of Glory and Mexico — these 



190 MEXICO 

figures are seven metres high and are most imposing. This monument is a 
recognition of the greatness of the reformer who did so much for Mexico in 
the closing years of his life. 

Sehor Ingeniero Ignacio de la Barre, in a well delivered address explained 
that the massive work of construction was completed in ten months, the workmen 
in a spirit of patriotism working day and night. On this occasion the American 
government presented an immense wreath of flowers which was borne to the 
foot of the statue on the strong shoulders of two most distinguished ambassadors, 
Honorable Curtis Guild and Honorable Henry Lane Wilson. This monument 
is most conspicuously placed in the Alameda, on the avenue which bears the name 
of the great patriot. 

The site in Plaza Dinamarca upon which will stand the monument to Wash- 
ington presented to Mexico by the resident citizens of the United States, was dedi- 
cated by General Diaz. The introductory address was made by Mr. C. R. Hudson 
and the oration delivered by Honorable Henry Lane Wilson, the resident American 
ambassador, was concluded in most brilliant language. This monument is now 
in construction, and is one of the many contributions in honor of the Centennial. 

On September 14th, the statue of Baron Alexander Von Humboldt, the mag- 
nificent gift from the German Emperor to the republic was unveiled in the garden 
of the National Library. In the midst of glittering uniforms and decorations, 
with the German band discoursing strains of Tannhauser, the President and his 
suite arrived to hear the address of presentation by Ambassador Carl Buenz and 
his diplomatic staff. It was the most brilliantly garbed assemblage of people 
at any dedication during the celebration. The chief executive drew the cord 
which parted the curtains that hid the dignified statue of the man whose faith 
in Mexico had inspired his predictions of its great future. The marines and 
sailors of the man of war Freya made a great impression by their splendid 
bearing. A chorus of male voices, hidden in the recesses of the building, rendered 
selections of classical music. The oration of the German ambassador was 
delivered in an eloquent style. He said: 

"Mr. President: 

"Ladies and Gentlemen: 

"This day belongs to the fraternal feeling between Mexicans and Germans. 
We find ourselves to-day under the emblem: 'The German Emperor to the 
Mexican Nation.' These are the words written on the base where has been 



THE CENTENNIAL loi 

raised the monument which we are about to dedicate to the Mexican nation, 
as a permanent symbol of our friendship. 

"Marble upon granite symbolizing the purity of our sentiments and the 
firmness of our friendship. 

"His majesty, the Emperor, desiring of his own initiative to give to Mexico 
a visible and permanent sign of his sympathy, could find no better means to 
realize his intention effectively than by the erection, in the capital of the republic, 
of the statue of the great explorer of this country, Baron Alexander Humboldt. 

"Over a century ago, a young German, animated by the enthusiasm of 
youth and the desire for scientific knowledge characteristic of our race, was 
inspired to explore the Latin lands across the seas. 

"As a simple traveler, he will soon appear to our page as a hero of science 
penetrating the most recondite mysteries of the New World, despite innumer- 
able dangers, cruel fatigues, almost insurmountable obstacles. 

"The author of ' Cosmos, ' his immortal work, belongs to the world, the illus- 
trious man of science, to our nation, the author of Essay on New Spain, to Mexico. 

"The European world heard with surprise the revelations of the beauty, 
the wealth, and the possibilities of a country in which he had become interested 
solely for its heroic history, for its past. 

"With Alexander Humboldt, modern Mexico celebrated its apparition as 
an actual power, as a valiant member of the family of modern nations. 

"The Mexican nation, always chivalrous, was quick to recognize the merits 
of the explorer of its territory and made him an honorary citizen. In this manner 
the son of Germany became the adopted child of the Mexican nation and Ger- 
many and Mexico became brother countries. 

"It is for the fraternity thus effected that the German Emperor offers to 
the Mexican nation the statue of her native son, the adopted son of Mexico. 

"And Mexico? What a marvel! 

"Another Alexander Humboldt, native born of Mexico, came and by his 
intelligence, through his love for his country, the energy of his character and the 
weight of his hand when it became necessary, he formed a new Mexico, a state 
worthy of occupying a distinguished place in the community of civilized nations. 

"It is for this reason, General, that to-day the representatives of civilized 
foreign nations participate in the celebration of the Centennial of the declaration 
of Mexico's independence. It is for this reason that His August Majesty, the 



192 



MEXICO 




SITE OF THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT. 
THE AMERICAN COLONY. 



PRESENTED BY 



Emperor, has sent me to express to Your Excellency, in the presence of the rep- 
resentatives of his army and his navy, his sincere sympathy for Your Excellency, 

his cordial desires for your 
welfare and for the prosper- 
ity of the Mexican nation, 
and it is for this reason, as 
a permanent symbol of this 
goodwill and love, that His 
Majesty furthered the plan 
of erecting in this, the cap- 
ital city of the republic, the 
monument we are about to 
unveil. 

"The erection of the 
monument in front of the 
National Library is signifi- 
cant of the universality in 
which all the differences of races, all the evolutions are resolved; of the univer- 
sality of science, of the harmony of ultimate ideas, of the chief ends of mankind. 
It is with this idea, Mr. President, that I to-day have the honor of delivering in 
the name of the Emperor, to Your Excellency as the representative of the nation, 
the statue of Alexander Humboldt, sole honorary citizen of this republic. That 
this monument be a 'monumentum sere perennius' of the friendship which 
happily binds our nations and our governments, a witness, dumb, but eloquent, 
of the continuous progress of this country towards the goal of its destinies." 

After a selection from Mendelssohn, the response for the president was 
delivered by the brilliant governor of the Federal District, Honorable Guillermo 
de Landa y Escandon. It was an entire day of festivity. Lunches and dinners 
were given at the German Club and theatrical performances in honor of the Ger- 
mans in all parts of the city. The cadets and officers from the warship were 
given the freedom of the town. 

Many other statues were dedicated and unveiled, among them monuments 
in honor of Garibaldi and Pasteur. 

In the Monumental Tribune at Chapultepec the president and his cabinet, 
the foreign ambassadors and ladies and gentlemen of Mexican society witnessed 



THE CENTENNIAL 193 

the ceremony of the dedication of the ground for the statue of Queen Isabel, 
the Catholic, which was presented by the Spanish Colony. 

All honor was paid to the cadets who fell in the battle of Molino del Rey, on 
whose monument were placed wreaths of flowers. 

Not a day passed during this great Centennial without some wonderful 
form of entertainment. The Civic parade which took place September 14th, 
was one in which all classes of society participated. Over ten thousand people 
marched in this procession, amid waving banners. It was headed by all the 
officials of the government, and took in every labor organization and employees 
of the government. The president reviewed it from the balcony of the National 
Palace. 

On September 15th, the most unique pageant known in history took place. 
It was the historical parade which comprised every character of Mexico's history. 
It was a drama enacted before the president with the oldest site of Mexico 
City, the Plaza de la Constitucion, as its stage. The actors numbered over twelve 
thousand and many came from parts of the republic in which the event they were 
to depict was originally enacted. All the magnificence of the Emperor Monte- 
zuma as he went forth to greet Hernan Cortes was faithfully represented in cos- 
tumes of their times and races. The following is a translation from the Mexican 
Daily Record, of the programme furnished by the members of the National Com- 
mission, to whom all honor should be given for this stupendous success: 

APPROACH OF CORTES 

The troops of Cortes, composed of four hundred Spaniards and seven 
thousand Indian allies, passed the night in the town of Amecameca, in the valley 
formed by the "Montana que Numea, " (mountain that smokes), on the 5th of 
November, 1519. The following day they continued their journey toward the 
great Tenochtitlan, the proud Lady of the Lakes; passed by Tlalmanalco and 
held to stop in Aytezinge, a village near Chalce. On rising the next day to 
continue the journey, Cacama, the king of Tezcoco called the Spanish conqueror 
and presented him with rich gifts in the name of Montezuma. 

The march continued, and on that day, November 6th, they arrived at 
Ixtapalapan where they were received by Cuitlahuac, brother of the emperor of 
Mexico, where they were comfortably lodged. 



194 



MEXICO 



Very early on the 7th, the journey was resumed; it is said that Cortes 
appeared somewhat distrustful and for that reason he formed his troops in line of 
battle. The flags were unfurled and the drums made a tremendous noise to 
terrorize the Indians. 

Great was the excitement in the hearts of the Spaniards at the sight of the 
panoramic view of the city, where numberless temples rose to view majestically 
over the crystal lakes. The exuberant vegetation and luxuriousness, the gifts 




MONTEZUMA'S ARMY IN MILITARY PARADE. 



or presents consisting of gold, precious stones, rich plumage, and so varied 
vegetable products, all must have caused a great impression on the minds of these 
men of insatiable thirst for adventure. 



EMPEROR MEETS CORTES 
Emperor Montezuma prepared himself to meet the conqueror. 



Two 



brothers accompanied the emperor and also the lords of Tezcoac, Ixtapalapan 
and Coyoacan, the king of Tlacopan, the treasurer of Montezuma, Tlacatecat, 
the captain general and other great personages. 



THE CENTENNIAL 195 

Four of these men conducted the emperor in a luxurious palanquin, with 
shafts of polished gold and showy blankets, under a pallium or canopy of woven 
feathers. Preceding the monarch a group of ministers with gold rods in their 
hands marched heralding the approach of the emperor, and the party was com- 
pleted by the members of the council, the priests, the captains in front of their 
warriors and their servants. 

Cortes arrived preceded by a cavalry guard, he mounted his white horse, Moli- 
nere. The vanguard was composed of drummers and buglers and the companies 
of arcabuceros and ballesteros. At the rear was a platoon of Tlaxcalteca warriors, 
allies of the emperor. Cortes was surrounded by his captains, Pedro de Alvarado, 
Juan Velasquez de Leon, Gonzalo de Sandoval, Alonso de Avila, Francisco de 
Luga, Diego de Ordaz and the distinguished soldier, Bernal Diaz de Castillo. 

When Montezuma and Cortes finally met, the former alighted from the 
palanquin and advanced to receive the latter upon several rugs which the ser- 
vants placed upon the floor before the emperor so that he need not step upon the 
ground, all the great lords and members of the cortege remaining with their heads 
bowed, so as not to see the face of the monarch. Four great lords covered him 
with the pallium when he approached the conqueror. 

GIFTS EXCHANGED 

Cortes dismounted and advanced to greet Montezuma, making two bows or 
reverences. Montezuma responded by placing his hands near the ground and then 
to his lips. The conqueror intended to embrace the monarch, but the great lords 
advised him that the emperor was a divinity who could hot be touched. He placed 
on the neck of Montezuma a collar of stones of marcasite glass in gold thread and 
scented with musk. Montezuma surrounded the neck of Cortes with a rich collar 
set with stones and a string of roses. He then ordered his party to offer his 
presents to Cortes and the latter received flowers and birds of beautiful plumage. 

The priests passed swinging their censors and the procession continued in 
the aforesaid order. 

ORGANIZATION OF PARADES 

The first group, which consisted of eight hundred and thirty-nine persons, 
commenced its march from the Plaza de la Reforma, following up Avenidas 



196 



MEXICO 



Juarez and San Francisco. When they reached the corner of Empadredillo, 
Montezuma and his party passed in front of the portales, and Cortes and his 




UNVEILING OF THE HUMBOLDT STATUE. PRESENTED TO MEXICO BY EMPEROR WILLIAM. 



party to the front of the Cathedral, in order that the meeting of the two would 
take place under the central balcony of the National Palace. The order of the 
procession was as follows: 

MONTEZUMA'S GROUP 

1. Nineteen Mexican warriors with banners. 

2. Grand captain escorted by eight warriors with badge of noble distinction. 

3. Fifty Mexican warriors. 

4. Thirty-eight priests. 

5. Lords of Tezcoco, Ixtapalapan, Coyoacan and Tlacopan accompanied 
by twenty Knights of the Sun. 

6. Fifteen noblemen, or great lords. 

7. Twenty Indian women escorted by six warriors with fixed banners and 
two Tiger Knights. 



THE CENTENNIAL 197 

8. Servants carrying tapestries and rugs or blankets to place them on the 
ground when the emperor alights from his palanquin. 

9. Ten ministers with gold rods in their hands. 

10. Emperor Montezuma in his palanquin, conducted by four great lords. 
Another four noblemen carry large fans, fifty more great lords surround the 
emperor. 

11. Group of warriors, priests, who escort the emperor. 

12. The procession is closed by seventy-two Mexican warriors with their 
respective chiefs. 

CORTES'S GROUP 

1. A guard of six soldiers, carabiniers on horseback and twenty on foot. 

2. Drummers and buglers. 

3. Ballesteros. 

4. Hernan Cortes, accompanied by Dona Marina (Malintzin) and his 
distinguished captains. 

5. Priests and servants of Cortes. 

6. Archers. 

7. Tlaxcalteca warriors allied to Cortes, in the following order: 
Advance guard of ten warriors. 

Chiefs of the republic of Tlaxcala. 

Standard bearers. 

Eighty warriors with their respective commanders, or chiefs. 

SECOND GROUP 

The second group represents the epoch of Spanish dominion in Mexico, in 
the procession of the banner. 

To commemorate the 13th day of August, the anniversary of the conquest, 
the procession used to be organized in the following order: 

Preceded by the drummers, buglers and the several foot ushers, the cabal- 
gada marched from the church of San Hipolito to the municipal palace, the pro- 
cession being formed by the councilmen, the mayor, the first constable, one 
honorary colonel and lieutenant-colonel of Spanish infantry, the members of the 
council of his majesty, the members of the audiencia. In a prominent place was 
the alferez or chief ensign of the town. The rear of the group was a military 



198 



MEXICO 




THE JUAREZ MONUMENT. 



force and the principal Indians of Santiago and Tlaltelolco, walking on foot with 
their typical square blankets, wide trousers, a cape and sandals. As a rule these 

Indians were the governor, 
the mayor, the judge and 
first constables of the afore- 
said places. On reaching 
the municipal palace, the 
alferez real would take the 
banner which was placed 
upon a scarlet pillow under 
the main balcony, and be- 
fore a notary he would 
pledge abject submission 
and return it to the place 
whence it came. 
The procession again formed, the royal alferez proceeded on the march 
through the streets of Tlapalros, Refugio, Puente del Espiritu Santo, San Angel, 
San Augustin, Portacoeli and Flamences to the main entrance of the viceroy's 
palace. The viceroy would come down and join the procession, surrounded by 
the high dignitaries of the palace, the alferez real to his left and to his right the 
oldest judge of the supreme court. The cavalcade would take the streets of 
El Reloj, Encarnacion, and Santo Domingo, to arrive at the platform erected 
in front of the palace, on which four maidens and four knights were waiting. 
Once on the tribune, the alferez would deliver to the viceroy the banner to be 
raised above his head. This ceremony was patronized by the provincials of 
Santo Domingo and San Francisco. When the ceremony ended, the viceroy 
entered the palace with his party and the alferez, with his party, returned 
to the ayuntamiento to leave there the banner, the whole procession then being 
dispersed. 

This group consisted of two hundred and eighty-eight persons and marched 
in the order indicated. At the main balcony of the municipal palace the royal 
ensign was placed, which is of crimson damask with the royal emblem em- 
broidered in gold, trimmed with a flounce of gold, cords and silk tassels. The 
royal emblem is surrounded by the following inscription: 

"Non in multitudine Exercitus Consistit sed in Voluntate Dei." 



THE CENTENNIAL 199 

When the royal alferez returns to the municipal palace to deposit the banner 
he leaves it in the hall of sessions of the ayuntamiento. 

Facing the National Palace, a platform with curtains was erected for the 
ceremony of raising the pennon or royal standard. 

MODERN TIMES 
The third group represented the era of independence and the present time, 
as follows: 

1. Glorification of Generalisimo Miguel Hidalgo. Allegorical float of the 
Independence, offered by the government of the State of Hidalgo. 

2. Float in honor of the insurgent Generalisimo Jose Maria Morelos y 
Pavon, by the government of the State of Michoacan. 

3. Representation of the entry of the army of the Three Guarantees into 
the City of Mexico, under the command of Augustin de Iturbide, accompanied 
by Generals Vicente Guerrero, Manuel Mier y Teran, Guadalupe Victoria and 
Anastasio Bustamante, leading some sections of the regiments who formed the 
Trigarante Army, among others the following: 

Imperial grenadiers. Regiment of the Crown. Regiments of Celaya, Tres 
Villas, Guadalajara, Light of Queretaro, Light of Morelos, Stationary of Puebla, 
Mexico and Valladolid. Regiments of Santo Domingo of Ferdinand VII. 
Dragoons of Mexico. Dragoons of the King. Dragoons of Santander. Faith- 
ful of the Potosi, Sierra Gorda and San Fernando. Regiments from Puebla and 
Mexico. 

This being the eve of the great day of Independence, as well as the celebra- 
tion of the eightieth birthday of General Diaz made it one of the most brilliant 
days of entertainment during the Centennial. Congratulations poured from all 
parts of the world to greet the Chief Executive on the occasion of his birthday 
and a galaxy of men and women at the National Palace furnished a scene never 
to be forgotten. True to the yearly custom of the past century, as the hour arrived 
when the ringing of the Bell of Liberty incited outbursts of enthusiasm, the masses 
gathered beneath the balcony of the National Palace, the president stepped out 
into the night and pronounced the Grito de Dolores, "Long live our most holy 
Mother of Guadalupe: Long live America, and death to bad government." 
The peals of this great relic of the past sounded like the silvery voice of Hidalgo 
embalmed in metal. 



200 



MEXICO 



On September 16th, the great review of the army of the republic took place. 
On this occasion the foreign delegates had the opportunity of viewing the army 
of Mexico in all its glory. 

A splendid official reception given by Governor de Landa y Escandon in 
the new Municipal Palace brought together a concourse of distinguished men and 
women. This was one of the great social events. 

One of the most magnificent spectacles that occurred during this gala 
Centennial was the ball given by President Diaz and Madame Carmen Romero de 
Diaz, the Diplomatic Corps and Mexican society. The large patio of the 
National Palace was a fairyland with myriads of lights and flowers, and in no 
part of the world could there be a more wonderful display. It was an honor to 
the nation. Mexico may justly be proud of the display at this function, she may 
well be proud of her beautiful women who in their magnificent toilettes and 
jewels carried themselves with such dignity. A special ambassador of one of 
the Courts of Europe remarked that he had never seen among crowned heads a 
woman who bore her dignity with such grace and beauty as Madame Diaz. 
Over ten thousand guests assisted at this beautiful ball. 

During the brilliancy of the fiestas, the nation's dead heroes were not for- 
gotten. The urns containing the remains and relics of Mexico's patriots were 
transferred from the Cathedral to the National Palace, and a most touching 
apotheosis was held in their honor. 




THE ARMY OF CORTES IN PARADE. 




PATIO OF THE SPANISH CASINO. 



CHAPTER X 



CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE 

MEXICO, with majestic and snow-capped mountains, opens to the view of 
the traveller who has hitherto followed the beaten paths a rich mine 
of unexpected delight. A wonderful country where nature has been so lavish 
that she causes to grow upon its surface a vegetation so varied that it includes 
every plant of tropical lands, together with the sturdy firs of the farthest north. 
Some strange magic seems to hold one within its gates: the dreamy poetic strain 
of old Spain whose traditions still tinge the country with the romance of the 
Cid, Manriques lays and the last of the Moors. Echoes of the Alhambra still 
linger in the graceful Moorish arches of the public buildings, while the gardens 
of King Boabdil live again in the beautiful alamedas with their stately trees, 
luxuriant vegetation, gorgeous flowers, graceful monuments and cool and shady 
walks. In every city of any size is the alameda, a meeting place for the people. 
The one in Mexico is especially artistic in arrangement by the profusion and 

beauty of its flowers. Side by side with the pushing needs of civilization and 

203 



204 MEXICO 

progress are to be seen evidence of the artist's instinct, which finds expression 
in splendid forms of architecture, not of the solid unsightly blocks of stone which 
so disfigure our large American cities. The progress of Mexico has been 
wonderful in the last fifteen years. 

The social distinction of the city is prominently marked by its magnificent 
clubs. The principal of these is the Jockey Club, whose sumptuous home is in 
"The House of Tiles," on San Francisco Street. The building is one of the 
finest in the capital ; it was built early in the eighteenth century and was formerly 
the palace of the Conde del Valle de Orizaba. Its massive form in Moorish style 
and Venetian ornamentation gives it a character wholly individual and irresisti- 
bly attractive. The facade is entirely finished with white and blue tiles, hence the 
familiar name of the building. The building is entered by a richly carved portal 
of massive proportions; the great doors of cedar are ornamented with unique 
copper ornaments. As the great patios are reached their ample stretch suggests 
that one is in the precincts of a vast deserted Andalusian palace. In the court- 
way stands a memorial of the days of the founder of the palace, a fountain of 
marvellous beauty, delicately and gracefully chiseled in the best style of that day. 

The first floor is carried on richly decorated cylindrical columns. At the 
left is the library, an exquisitely adorned apartment with every appointment 
that luxury can suggest for such a room and a special literature befitting the 
establishment, complete in every respect. 

As little change as possible has been made in the structural character of 
the old Count's palace. On the grand stairway, the great lamp with its alabaster 
globes casts its soft light on the old walls, just as it did when the assassin struck 
down the original owner. Splendid Venetian mirrors reflect the beauties of 
decoration and deep set windows of octagonal shape with their oddly designed 
panes of richly stained glass serve to add decorative strength and to heighten 
the effect of the curious ceiling tiled with alternate rows of porcelain and cedar. 

The corridor on the main floor is also a masterpiece of tile work, like the 
facade, in white and blue. A striking feature of this corridor is the railing of 
lumbago, a bronze composite brought by Spain's galleons from China, which is 
splendidly wrought and is of great value. Of the same metal are the club's bal- 
conies facing San Francisco Street and Callejon Condesa. In the main floor corri- 
dor and on the landing of the grand staircase still remain the graved coat-of-arms 
of Del Valle, and everywhere white and blue tiles, costly as silver, and unmarred 



CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE 205 

by the touch of centuries; a bit of old time splendor preciously cherished both 
as being old and as reminders of the high proficiency of the art of earlier days. 

On the main floor is the little-changed chapel of the Conde del Valle which 
was once the depository of the sacred relics and art treasures of his family, but is 
now devoted to games of tresillo. Here still is the richly carved quaint cedar 
portal and the fine sculptured arch of the former oratory. 

The history of the famous club begins with 1881, and its founding is due to 
the late General Pedro Rincon Gallardo and Sehor Francisco Somera, who ob- 
tained the co-operation of the municipal council. On June 8, 1881, the first 
president, Sehor Somera, was elected. The second was Sehor Manuel Romero 
Rubio. At his death in 1895, General Gallardo succeeded. Sehor Yves Liman- 
tour is now the president and Sehor Sebastian Camacho, the vice-president. 

The club membership is extremely exclusive; there are but a few foreign 
members and introductions are very limited. 

The University Club is most comfortably housed in Calle Bucareli. Oc- 
casional introductions are permitted by members, and entertainment is accorded 
as guests to visiting university men on the request of members. 

The Country Club is near Tacubaya, in one of the finest club buildings in 
America, being of Spanish mission style. Its hospitality is generously extended 
to non-residents of the Federal district. Visitors may be introduced in person, 
and two weeks' privileges are granted on request of members. It has a splendid 
tennis court and a fine golf link. The dining room is finished in Old Flemish. 
This is the favorite meeting place of distinguished Americans. 

The home of the British Club in San Francisco Street is handsomely ap- 
pointed, and in great favor. The membership is, of course, chiefly British, with 
a few colonists from other places and a sprinkling of Mexicans. Visitors are 
entertained for two weeks on request of members. 

The French Clubs, the Cercle Francois and the University Club, are both 
noted for their attractions. 

The American Club on Calle Independencia is the chief social foyer of the 
leading American residents in the capital. The provision made for accommoda- 
tion of members and guests, though extensive, is often taxed to its capacity. 
The privilege of guests of the Club is accorded on request to members for the 
accommodation of their visiting friends. 

The German Club has a fine new building and a splendid gymnasium. 



206 



MEXICO 



The Casino Espanol Club is domiciled in a mansion, and has a membership 
of eight hundred. This Club is famous for its magnificent balls. During the 
Centennial it gave many fiestas of note. Sehor Sanchez y Ramos, a son-in-law 

of Benito Juarez, is the dis- 
tinguished president. 

The Diplomatic Corps, 
which is quite large, is an 
important element in the 
social life of the Capital, and 
is composed of many dis- 
tinguished representatives. 
The Spanish, the French 
and the Japanese are among 
the best entertainers. The 
British government is repre- 
sented by His Excellency, 
the Honorable Reginald T. 
Tower. Soon after his ar- 
rival in Mexico, he pre- 
; sented General Diaz with 
the Grand Cross of the 
Bath, which was conferred 
on the President by His 
Majesty, King Edward. 

The American Colony 
in the City of Mexico is 
composed of many distinguished representatives. Their social life, while in a 
measure confined to themselves, is delightful. The American Ambassador, 
Honorable Henry Lane Wilson, and his charming wife have endeared them- 
selves to everyone. Honorable Arnold Shanklin is the United States Consul 
General. He is a popular favorite and has won many friends and admirers in 
Mexico. 

The Christmas customs of Mexico are uncommonly pretty and touching. 
The Christmas-tree is not a native institution, though it gives indications of 
becoming naturalized. In its stead the Mexican children have what they call 




HISTORICAL STAIRWAY OF JOCKEY CLUB. 



CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE 207 

a pinata, which affords them just as much fun. The pinata is a large earthen- 
ware jar, which is covered with colored tissue-paper. This jar is filled with all 
sorts of dainties dear to children and is hung up in the corridor or court-yard 
of the house. Each of the children is blind-folded in turn, and, after being 
turned around once or twice, has a stick placed in his or her hand and is in- 
vited to break the pinata. The wielder of the stick is generally, after being 
turned around, quite out of his bearings, and often brings down it within an 
inch of the head of one of the party. He is allowed three trials, and if not 
successful the handkerchief is removed and another takes his turn. At length 
a crash is heard — some one has made a true hit — the pinata is broken and the 
good things fall in a shower to the ground. 

The posadas are a characteristically Mexican celebration. They commem- 
orate the journey of Mary and Joseph from Nazareth to Bethlehem. This 
journey, performed by Mary mounted on an ass, which Joseph guided, is sup- 
posed to have occupied nine days. Each evening they naturally approached 
some dwelling to beg a night's shelter. It is this nightly episode that is commem- 
orated in Mexican houses by the posadas, or the begging of the posada (pedir 
posada), meaning shelter, lodging, or entertainment. In the patriarchal days of 
the viceroys the posada was a strictly religious custom, and in a few old-fashioned 
families it is so still. The ninth night of the posadas — that is, Christmas Eve — 
is celebrated on the most extensive and luxurious scale of all, and generally the 
wealthiest of the families that have clubbed together gives the entertainment. 
In memory of the night when the Saviour was born, the figure of an infant is 
carried in procession, and is placed in a manger between the ox and the ass in a 
prettily adorned cave, which is intended to represent the stable where Mary and 
Joseph took refuge when they found that there was no room for them in the inns. 

The feast day celebrated by the Catholic Church on November 1st, is called 
All Saints', and ranks as one of the most solemn of the year. It was instituted 
at an early period in the history of the Church as a means of doing honor to the 
many saints to whom it was impossible to. assign a separate feast. The feast 
which follows on November 2d, is popularly known as All Souls', and is the day 
for the commemoration of the faithful departed. On this day masses are said 
and special prayers offered by Catholics for the release of souls from purgatory. 
The priests wear black vestments, and in some of the churches a huge catafalque 
is erected in the centre of the nave. 



208 



MEXICO 



The origin of the feast of All Souls' dates back to the year 827 a. d., 'when 
Amalario, the Deacon of Metz, published the office for the dead, but it was not 
until 998 a.d., that St. Odillon, abbot of Cluny, instituted in his churches this 

feast in commemoration of the 
faithful deceased. This feast soon 
prevailed in the Catholic Church. 
It took a rather wider range in 
France in the eighteenth century, 
when the laborers began to dedi- 
cate gratuitous work, fbr the bene- 
fit of the poor of All Souls' day, 
and offered to the Church wheat, 
which, according to the Pauline 
designation, is the symbol of resur- 
rection. 

The idea of these November 
feasts is not original with Mexico; 
it has found root in nearly every 
religion. 

The feasts of All Saints' and 
All Souls' although not celebrated 
with the eclat of former years, are 
still very interesting in certain por- 
tions of the republic, especially along the Gulf coast. There the Indians are in 
the habit of placing upon the graves dulces, or sweetmeats, prepared with 
chilacayote and calaba^as. The Indians place these dulces with large jars of 
water upon the tombs of their deceased relatives and friends during the after- 
noon of November 1st, so that the dead — that night at least — can have some- 
thing to eat and drink. This latter arrangement is similar to some of the 
customs of Germany and Central Europe. 

The "ofrenda, " or offering, is, singular to say, of Aztec origin. The Aztecs 
were in the habit of cremating their dead; and they kept the ashes in an urn 
with fragments of precious metals, emeralds, etc., also putting in food and catlis, 
together with bows and arrows and a quantity of a great golden-hearted flower 
called the lempoalioichitl, which can be found growing in Mexico profusely at 




THE JOCKEY CLUB. 



CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE 209 

this day. This llower is used to decorate the sepulchres in company with white 
roses, the ruby "flor de noche buena," and velvety forget-me-nots, as well as 
violets, geraniums, and marguerites. In the country districts the ofrenda is 
much more elaborate than in the city. Candles are also used by thousands in 
the little panteons or cemeteries of the country. Among the simple folk in these 
Indian villages the local poets write up more or iess readable "poetry," which is 
also included in the offering to the dead. In some isolated portions of Mexico 
this custom prevails to such an extent that the children beg money from their 
parents to buy fruit for that purpose, or else, they say, the departed will come on 
Halloween and pull their little feet. It is impossible to give an idea of all the 
curious customs and incidents that prevail in the rural districts of Mexico with 
respect to the observance of these holidays. Halloween in Mexico does not 
partake of the mischievous and jocose character of the day in the United States 
and England. 

Among the characteristic sights of these days peculiar to Mexico are the 
strange toys sold on the streets and in stalls. They consist of skull and cross- 
bones of sugar adorned with gold leaf, lath coffins surrounded with priests and 
acolytes and containing a skeleton, miniature catafalques, altars, etc. Many 
of the coffins are so arranged that by pulling a string the lid opens and the dead 
man sits up. No Mexican child is content without one of these toys. The mozos 
and domestic servants also look at this time for their festival, to which they give 
the name of calavera (skull). It is a carnival of death; a mingling of levity with 
sadness. 

It is the custom to visit on All Souls' day the graves of relatives and 
friends, to place wreaths and candles round about, and to offer prayers. Any 
one of Mexico's cemeteries offers an interesting scene on that day. The French 
cemetery, where many of Mexico's wealthiest families have their vaults, is one 
mass of beautiful wreaths. The tomb of Juarez, in the San Fernando ceme- 
tery, receives many mementoes from admirers of the great Liberal statesman. 
The cemetery of Tepeyac, near Guadalupe, where lie the remains of Santa Anna 
and members of many of Mexico's first families, is visited by a throng of devout 
mourners bearing costly wreaths. The abundance of trees which darkens the 
English cemetery even at mid-day makes it eminently harmonious with the 
tendency to sober meditation. This cemetery contains the tombs of the first 
Englishmen, almost the first foreigners, that ever came to this country, away 



210 



MEXICO 



back in the twenties. The American cemetery is near the English. There is a 
monument to the American soldiers who perished in the Valley of Mexico in 
1847. This receives its floral offerings on Decoration Day. But if the tourist 

or resident wishes to see a char-' 
acteristically Mexican celebra- 
tion of All Souls', he should go 
to the great Dolores cemetery. 
Except on very few tombs, he 
will find no French creations in 
the way of wreaths, but an 
abundance of flowers. 

Out beyond the southwest- 
ern limits of the city, on the 
boundary line formed by what 
is known as the Calzada de la 
Veronica, is the little patch of 
ground which possesses such 
peculiar interest for Americans, 
and especially for those who 
reside in Mexico. Though on 
Mexican soil, it is American in 
the fullest sense of the word, for 
the full and perfect title therein 
is vested in the United States, 
and its management and control 
are in the hands of the War Department at Washington. Mexico is the only coun- 
try on earth where the United States possesses a title to land for such purposes, and 
exercises authority over foreign soil. It was in 1873 that the cemetery was sub- 
jected to the rules and regulations affecting United States national cemeteries. 1 1 
was established in 1851, under an act of Congress approved September 28, 1850. 
The seven hundred and fifty soldiers who were killed on the plains of Mexico 
are buried together in a single grave. In memory of these, a simple granite 
shaft about six feet high has been raised. 

To obtain the right to bury there it is necessary to secure a permit from the 
United States consul-general, the permit being a voucher for the citizenship of 




SENOR DON SEBASTAIN CAMACHO. VICE-PRESIDENT 
OF THE JOCKEY CLUB. 



CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE 211 

the deceased. In addition to this, another permit has to be obtained from the 
civil authorities, which is a mere formality, as Americans, living or dead, have 
always received magnanimous treatment and the kindest consideration from 
district authorities as well as from those of the general government. No graves 
are sold, and the selection of the last resting place lies with the superintendent. 
No charge is made and no expense incurred. The United States government 
pays the employees and superintendent out of the annual appropriation and the 
friends of the deceased are at liberty to express affection by the adornment of 
the graves with monuments and flowers. 

The funeral customs of Mexico are a source of constant interest to strangers 
in that land, as the burial of the dead is a ceremony of great display. The poor 
rent handsome coffins, which they have not the means to buy, and transfer the 
body from its temporary casket to a cheap box before it is laid in the grave. 
Invitations are issued by messenger, and advertisements of funerals are published 
in the newspapers or posted at the street corners, like those of a bull-fight or a 
play. Announcements in faultless Spanish are sent to friends in big black- 
bordered envelopes, and are usually decorated with a picture of a tomb. 

There is a very pretty custom in Mexico by which all people who call upon a 
mourning family must dress in deep black. This is but one of the many pleasant 
ways the Mexicans have of paying honor to the memory of their beloved dead. 

During the month of November, in every village of Spain and her former 
colonies, the traditional legend of Don Juan Tenorio, dramatized by Don Jose 
Zorrilla, is put on the stage. The sentimentality of this piece seems to have an 
irresistible fascination for Spanish taste. It is impossible to understand the 
Spanish character without having read or heard of this extraordinary play. It 
has been said that every youth of Spanish descent would be a Don Juan, and 
every Spanish maiden a Dona Ines. The exploits of Juan in a more prosaic age 
and country would inevitably have qualified him for the gallows. The drama of 
Don Juan is now, however, color a\ul and is not attended by the beau monde. 

The Indians observe a fiesta on the 21st of August in memory of the tortures 
to which Cuauhtemoc and his cousin Tlacopan, Prince of Tezcoco, were subjected 
by Cortes, who endeavored to force from Cuauhtemoc the secret of the hidden 
treasure. The monument dedicated to Cuauhtemoc on the Paseo has a relief 
representing Cuauhtemoc and Tlacopan standing upon stone slabs, with their feet 
hanging over flames of fire. Around the tortured warriors are clustered the 



212 



MEXICO 



Spaniards, anxiously awaiting the secret which Cuauhtemoc never disclosed. 
"Do not be weary," he said to his tormentors; "he who has resisted famine, 
death, and the wrath of the gods is not capable of humiliating himself now like 

a weak woman ; the treasury 
of the kings of Mexico I sub- 
merged in the lake four days 
before the siege of the city, 
and you will never find it." 
One of the Easter cus- 
toms is the hanging in effigy 
of Judas Iscariot, which is 
done everywhere in the 
country, from the plazas of 
the large cities down to the 
smallest hamlet. The Cath- 
olic citizens attire themselves 
in deep mourning through- 
out all of Holy Week, and on 
Saturday grotesque figures 
of him who betrayed his 
Lord are brought out every- 
where and hanged. After 
this they are burned with all 
the contempt due to the be- 
trayer of his Master. 

Mexican women of the 
better class are noted for 
their beauty; and everywhere the young girls are exquisitely pretty. The 
slender oval of the face, the rich olive of the cheek, the long, sweeping, dark 
lashes over superb eyes, glowing at once with passion and tenderness, the low 
forehead with its rippling mass of dusky hair, the slender neck, the lithe form, 
the springing step, and the dainty foot make them like a poet's dream of darkly 
brilliant loveliness, and not to be measured by any other type in the world. 

Among the upper classes of Mexico will be found as high a degree of social 
and intellectual refinement as exists in Paris; as quick a reception and as cordial 




FOUNTAIN IN THE PATIO OF THE JOCKEY CLUB. 



CLUBS .-IND SOCIAL LIFE 213 

a knowledge of the arts and literature as people of the busy cities of the United 
States have acquired. Their wealth is lavishly displayed; their taste is exer- 
cised to a degree equal to that of any other people in the world; and the interior 
of many of their dwellings furnishes a glimpse of happiness and cultured elegance 
that, with their less active temperament, they enjoy more than do their northern 
neighbors. Yet these people, who receive the latest Paris fashions and liter- 
ature by every steamer, still cling to some ancient customs. Social law restricts 
intercourse between the sexes, as in the Latin nations of Europe. The people 
are noted for their good manners, their politeness, and their courtesy to strangers. 
They make excellent hosts, and they throw their houses open to their guests 
with the most hearty generosity. , 

Such are some of the aspects of life in Mexico. Wander forth in the morn- 
ing almost any day in the year and you will find the blue sky a free expanse 
above, with the foliage lazily swaying against it; birds — yellow, or black with 
orange and crimson spots — singing or chattering in wild freedom. There is a 
glimpse of water, into which the sun drops beams through the foliage. Plants 
and trees of all sorts break the scene into fascinating patterns. Flowers in 
bloom beautify and scent the dream. 

Or it is evening, and electric lights cast a half shadow silent as a tomb: 
the trees and flowers and birds sleep, a mysterious quiet and suggestion of luxu- 
riant foliage that appeals to one in a certain mood; but all is gay about. Then 
the old moon swings up from behind the ragged wall, between the heavy arches 
of trees, and the scene that you thought perfect is enhanced. The moon grows 
bigger and the scene lighter, and this, you remember, is but one day in beautiful 
Mexico. 

Everywhere the people are cheerful and simple in their ways of living. They 
all attend church, and are devotional in habit. Doubtless more prayers are said 
in Mexico in a single day than in all the United States together; and yet some 
people in the latter country want to send missionaries to Mexico! 

In several different places including Guanajuato, Mexico has a display of 
comparatively modern mummies and catacombs. The practice prevails, as in 
some European cities, of renting tomb space for the use of a corpse. In Mexico, 
if at the expiration of the original term there is no renewal of the lease, the corpse 
is dumped into an extensive underground chamber. If in the dry air the evicted 
mummifies, he stands against the wall; if he tumbles to pieces, his bones join 



214 



MEXICO 



the vast miscellaneous heap. The Guanajuato catacomb is ghastly enough to 
satisfy the most exacting connoisseur of the gruesome and bloodthirsty. In 
some of the mummies which have recently been examined jade teeth have been 

found, which is thought to 
be a proof that the Aztec 
princes used to be supplied 
by their dentists with hand- 
some jade teeth whenever 
their own pearly ones failed. 
Then there are street 
scenes of a strange and for- 
eign aspect, such as black 
street car hearses. There 
are also curious street signs, 
rude but vigorous and 
highly colored pictures de- 
picting scenes suggestive 
of the business conducted 
within, and in appropriate 
names in staring letters as 
trade-marks, so to speak, of 
the different stores. Imag- 
ine, for instance, "The Last 
Days of Pompeii " as a busi- 
ness sign, of "The Sacred 
Heart of Jesus," which is 
the name of a score of es- 
tablishments, and names of 
streets — "Crown of Thorns 
Street, " " Fifth of May Street, " " Holy Ghost Street," " Blood of Christ Street, " 
"Body of Christ Street," "Mother of Sorrows Street," "Street of the Sacred 
Heart," "The Heart of Jesus Street," "Street of the Love of God," "Jesus 
Street," and "John the Baptist Street." 

Other governments might well take pattern from the Mexican parliament. 
No other government in the world has one like it in point of courtesy and dignity. 




SENOR JOSE SANCHEZ RAMOS, PRESIDENT OF THE 
SPANISH CASINO. 



CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE 215 

The Mexican legislature holds its sessions in the evenings. The seats of the mem- 
bers are arranged in semicircular rows, and the presiding officer and officials of 
the house sit upon a large dais, or platform. At each side of the platform is a 
sort of pulpit, from which very formal addresses are delivered ; but unpretentious 
discussions taking a conversational and unimpassioned form are conducted on 
the floor of the chamber. The orchestra and the galleries are divided into boxes, 
which are reserved for spectators; but it is only a rare occasion that brings out- 
siders to listen to the deliberations of their lawmakers. There is much etiquette 
in the parliament: members appear in evening dress; there is no confusion; there 
is seldom any rude or improper language like that which so often disgraces other 
deliberative assemblies. Speakers are courteous, even-tempered, and apparently 
conscious of the dignity of their position. Extreme dignity and decorum mark 
the proceedings, which are always short and practical. The legislature meets 
twice in each year, in the spring and in the fall. The House of Representatives 
has one member for every forty thousand inhabitants, and the Senate has one 
Senator for each state in the republic. 

Mexico was christened by the conquerors "New Spain," and to this day it 
has many Spanish characteristics. The City of Mexico is as large as Madrid 
or Barcelona, and far surpasses both in novelty and interest. Outside of its 
wonderful picture gallery, the finest in the world, Madrid is only an imitation 
Paris, while Barcelona is a bright, attractive modern business city. Mexico is 
all these, and in addition, interests with Oriental scenes and suggestions. It has 
many of the sight-seeing attractions of Madrid, Barcelona, and gay Seville, with 
touches of scenes from the streets of Cairo. Guadalajara and Puebla are nearer 
the size of Seville, and each has manifold attractions. Guanajuato is the Mexican 
reminder of Toledo and Granada, perched on the rocky hill-sides, terraced, quaint 
and picturesque. You hear the same language spoken as in Spain; in both 
countries you pay separately for each act at a theatrical performance; while in 
no other country except old Spain is the bull-fight so popular an institution. 

And, after all, bull-fighting seems more or less appropriate to the peculiar 
civilization of Mexico. The picturesque setting that is given there calls up 
vaguely the bouts in the amphitheatre in the days of Roman glory. 

The new bull ring in Calle Oaxaca, with a seating capacity of twenty 
thousand was during the Centennial a scene of wonderful animation when a 
corrida de luxo was offered by the government to the visiting ambassadors. 



216 



MEXICO 



Among the higher classes, social life in the republic is most charming. While 
there is great ceremony and conventionality, refinement, culture, unfailing court- 
esy, and delicate gallantry prevail. The scholar, the artist, and the litterateur 
may all find congenial society. Hospitality is as generous as it is proverbial. 
One has only to be properly introduced to be the recipient of lavish attentions. 
Often gifts of flowers, birds, curios, and even valuable relics are offered with 
princely generosity. 




STAIRWAY LEADING TO LOUNGING- ROOM IN SPANISH CASINO. 




BY SENOR JORGE ENCISO 




THE MENDICANTS." BY SUAREZ. 



CHAPTER XI 



ART AND LITERATURE 



THE genius of the Mexican people has ever inclined to the artistic. When 
one form of imaginative expression has been denied others have been 
resorted to with greater force. 

The preferred outlet for the native imagination has been architecture, 
upon which but seldom has any ban been placed either by secular or ecclesias- 
tical authority. In the Spanish days there were occasions when representatives 
of the crown refused permission to erect palaces considered too sumptuous or 
colossal for private occupancy, but no limit was ever placed upon the worthier 
ambition to erect great churches as monuments of their gratitude to God for 
prosperity conferred. So, to-day, Mexico inherits a very large number of 

wonderful monuments. Many of these are decorated in beautiful detail with 

219 



220 MEXICO 

both chisel and brush. Everywhere they present evidence that though the gen- 
eral scheme of one may have been borrowed from or suggested by architectural 
works of Spaniard or Moor, of Italian or Fleming, of Roman or Greek,, the 
native genius insisted upon its own mark. There, is in fact, a Mexican style 
of architecture almost as truly intrinsic as that of any original type. It is 
unfortunate that while the names of European architects employed in the de- 
signing of some of the most celebrated buildings are recorded there is usually 
no way of identifying the native designers, builders, master masons, sculptors 
and painters who left behind them this great wealth of embodied imagination. 

All the conditions favored the structural art. On one hand was the great 
wealth of the crown, the church and the mine-owner, on the other an abundance 
of material and of skilled labor. Even to-day there are no more cunning stone 
workers in the world than are found among the Mexican craftsmen. 

The economic prostration following the wars for independence put a stop 
to architectural progress, but the prosperity restored to the country by the 
administration of General Diaz has led to a renewal of construction and many 
notable buildings have been added while others have been restored. 

Next to architecture, the native art of which most evidences exist is that 
of painting. Every condition stimulates this. Nature herself has been lavish 
with scenic endowment — grand and gorgeous, tender and delicate. All call for 
pictorial presentment. And the skies are brilliantly wonderful and varied. So 
Mexico has naturally produced a host of great landscape painters. 

Others of romantic inclination have been stimulated by the great military 
and religious pageantry of their country's history and episodes of this have been 
depicted with luxurious freedom. Nor has portraiture been neglected. At the 
present time many painters of both achievement and promise are flourishing. 
One of them, Gerardo Murillo, is living in a cave on Popocatepetl, working to 
perpetuate the aspects of this dying volcano. 

Two of his pictures have been described by a local critic as follows: "One 
large canvas, eight by six feet shows a splendid view of a bold crag near the sum- 
mit of the volcano, where the wind is blowing and where the deep blue heavens 
give a tone to the snow, which is piled smooth and deep in its unbroken mass 
fresh from the last storm. 

"A picture somewhat smaller hangs in the studio of Mr. Murillo, in the San 
Carlos Academy, which does not fail to attract the attention of all who see it. 



4RT AND LITERATURE 



221 



1 t is the picture of a rugged precipitous scene over which the snow of centuries is 
piled. The hour is twilight and the whole scene is bathed in a deep blue light 
which is so realistic to any one who has grown accustomed to the mountains." 

Francisco de P. 
Mendoza has turned 
to history for his 
inspiration and has 
painted several pic- 
tures' of notable bat- 
tle scenes from the 
campaigns of Gen- 
eral Diaz. Thus he 
seeks to foster in 
those who see his 
work that spirit of 
patriotism which is 
the spring of his 
own effort. His chief 
canvases depict the 
battles of "The Sec- 
ond of April," "The 
Carbonera," and 
"Miahuatlan." 

Andres Rios 
has done some nota- 
ble landscapes, but 
has received most 

praise for his single figures and groups. "The Curate of San Angel" is particu- 
larly noteworthy for skill in handling the light effects. 

"Going to the Hospital" shows a suffering woman leaving her home with 
the assistance of her mother and daughter while the husband and an older 
daughter remain on the doorstep, he crouched, and she standing and both show- 
ing the misery of their sorrow. 

Daniel del Valle is another contemporary who is acquiring fame by figure 
work, though not long graduated from the academy. He has entered the field 




GALLERY IN THE MODERN SCHOOL OF PAINTING. 



222 



MEXICO 



of ancient endeavor and devotes his work to the decorating of churches and 
palaces. Visitors will find some of his best efforts in the churches of Santa 
Maria la Redonda and Jesus Maria. 

Leandro Isaguirre is one of the best fruits of the government system of 
sending graduates of the national schools abroad for post-graduate instruction. 

Having learned what 
he could at the San Car- 
los Academy, this prom- 
ising young painter was 
sent at public expense 
to Europe for five years. 
There he studied in the 
studios of the most noted 
instructors in Spain, 
Italy, France, Holland 
and England. He made 
many copies of the mas- 
terpieces in the princi- 
pal galleries of the Old 
World. Since his return 
he has settled down to 
work on native subjects, 
selected for the most part 
from among the laboring 
classes. He has also de- 
picted many of the land- 
scapes of high altitude 
where the effect of the 
lights has usually baffled 
the visiting artist. Like 
some of the men who 
have mastered this prob- 
lem in the United States, after years of labor, Isaguirre has had success even though 
he has remained faithful to oils, while the Americans have been driven to water 
colors and pastelle to get the clear effects that prevail a mile or more above the sea. 




"AN EPISODE OF A FIRE." BY G. CARRASCO. 



ART AND LITERATURE 223 

Herman Gedovius, though of German descent and name, is really a Mexican 
and so entitled to mention among the modern painters of the country. He was 
born in San. Luis Potosi but received his art education in the Royal Bavarian 
Academy at Munich. He devotes himself almost exclusively to portraiture, 
though he has painted some ideal heads. Like most of the others mentioned he 
gives up part of his time to teaching in the San Carlos Academy. 

The Dean of the present school of painters is Felix Parra, whose work is 
much in the style of the modern French school. His subjects are scenes from 
contemporary life which he presents with great vivacity and some humor. His 
works are very popular among the wealthy and broadly scattered in their homes. 

Another artist who shows strongly the influence of the same school is Alfredo 
Ramos Martinez, who received his art training partly at the expense of interested 
art lovers and partly at that of the Mexican government. All his subjects are of 
some manifestation of happiness outdoors and his canvases are very popular. 
Several of them have been hung in the Paris Salon. 

Many of the pictorial treasures of Mexico were looted by the French during 
their invasion of the country, but about two thousand have been collected for 
the gallery of the National School of Fine Arts in the City of Mexico. Many 
others are still preserved in churches and public buildings throughout the 
various states and in private collections. 

In the case of mural decoration, of which a great wealth was produced during 
the Spanish domination, many of the best examples have been destroyed by 
climatic influences but enough great frescoes have been preserved to show that 
there were many masters in the earlier days. 

Painting was first taught by Spaniards, but the teachers themselves 
were of no narrow school. Spain, it must be remembered, dominated in those 
days not only the Iberian peninsula but also Austria, much of Germany, the Low 
Countries and great colonies in North and South America and the East Indies. 
Her soldiers, priests, fortune seekers, and government officials were the great 
travelers of the age. They knew every school of art and all the materials then 
employed. The teachers imparted to their pupils all there was of technique 
and the pupils had the genius. To enlarge the native taste came later; many 
Italian painters were attracted by the generous rewards which the rich govern- 
ment and church gave for works of beauty which could be used for the adorn- 
ment of church and palace interiors. 



224 



MEXICO 



At first copyists, the native artists soon became creators. The first school 
studio in Mexico was opened about 1523, by Rodrigo de Cifuentes, a Cordovan. 
His work was along the line of historic portraiture and examples of it are still 
extant. His assistant was a Flemish monk, Pedro de Gante. Another con- 
temporary was Andres de Concha whose work may still be seen in the church of 
Santo Domingo at Yauhuitlan, Oaxaca. 




•THE FORTUNATES." BY SATURN1NO HERRAN. 



Next came the great school founded by the elder Echave. Among his 
pupils were his wife (La Sumaya), his son, the two brothers Juarez, a third Juarez 
and Arteaga. These filled in much of the early half of the seventeenth century. 
Numerous works of theirs are still to be seen in the National Academy and in 
various churches. For the most part their subjects were devotional. 

Of those who worked in the latter half of the century but two are remem- 
bered, de Borgraf and Villalpando. There is a legend that the wonderful Sister 
de la Cruz also painted, but the evidence is not conclusive. A portrait of 



ART AND LITERATURE 225 

herself by herself (so it is claimed) was brought to the United States and now 
hangs in the gallery of the Pennsylvania Museum at Philadelphia. 

Several notable painters distinguished the eighteenth century. Again there 
were two brothers of the Juarez family. A Zapotec Indian, Michael Cabrera, 
is by some considered the greatest painter of his time. He first added to the colors 
introduced from Europe those more brilliant pigments, knowledge of which 
descended from the Aztecs. He lived to be old, was of great energy, and was 
a most prolific producer. His efforts are broad and attained with startling 
success. 

Flourishing at the same time was Ibarra, whose admirers are almost as num- 
erous as those of Cabrera. He was more hampered by convention, however, and 
his appeal is not so forcible. Softness of coloring distinguishes his work where 
that of his rival demands admiration by harsher brilliancy. His style of work 
was continued by his pupil Alzibar. 

At the end of the century and through the first third of the nineteenth the 
dominant figure in art was Tresguerras who was not only architect and sculptor 
but painter and poet also. How one pair of hands could have produced all that 
is attributed to him it is impossible to conceive. 

At the present time the government does everything possible to develop 
art production. Tuition is free in the National Academy and many prizes and 
scholarships are offered. 

The Academy of Fine Arts (San Carlos) takes its origin from a decree of 
Charles III., in 1778, when a school of engraving was authorized, which was 
opened in the following year under the direction of Don Geronimo Gil, the chief 
engraver of the mint. Three years later, classes in painting, sculpture, and 
architecture were established with the consent of the viceroy, followed the next 
year by a royal license establishing La Academia de las Nobles Artes de San 
Carlos de la Nueva Espana, which was opened on April 4, 1785. In 1791 the 
institution was removed to its present home in the building formerly occupied 
by the hospital de Amor de Dios. 

Spain sent celebrated artists to Mexico to direct the affairs of the academy; 
the first were the painter Aguirre and the painter and architect Velasquez. 

Before the Conquest there were no painters in oils but there were wonder- 
fully skilful and artistic use of the natural dyes and assembling into artistic 
designs of the gaudy plumage of tropical birds and weaving of fabrics. Also 



226 



MEXICO 



there was a knowledge of the making of glazed pottery in rich hues. These 

arts survive among the people and are being fostered by government influence. 

In sculpture, after the Spanish invasion, there was much beautiful work in 

the adornment of the churches, both by the carving of images of saints and angels, 




"THE ETERNAL VICTIM." BY F. ROMANO. 



and of architectural detail in the churches. Afterward came an era of historic 
monument making, leading to the enrichment of the many public squares and 
government buildings. This work of embellishment has been renewed with 
earnestness under the present administration. Few names of the great sculp- 
tors have been preserved. The three best remembered are those of Cora and 
Patino Instolinque and Francisco Tresguerras. 



ART AND LITERATURE 227 

Akin to the sculptor's art is that of the worker in metals. Wonderfully 
clever have the Mexicans ever been at the smithcraft and many of their master- 
pieces rank with the best Italian work. 

Of literary accomplishment the nation has not so much to show as in the other 
arts, a condition due partly to the prohibition of authority and partly to actual 
destruction. There was a body of native literature before the Spaniards came, 
but this was almost entirely destroyed by command of the priests who accom- 
panied the invaders. Printing presses were not welcome when Mexico was a 
colony of Castile and both religious and secular authorities discouraged almost 
every form of letters. One can hardly ascribe to Mexico the body of Spanish 
writers who chronicled the Conquest. But there was an Aztec prince, Ixtlilxoch- 
itl. who did his best to preserve some of the works of his ancestors by translating 
them into Castilian. 

After him were few writers of power until to-day. In the latter half of the 
seventeenth century there flourished a prodigy best described perhaps as a female 
Keats, who has left a number of beautiful poems. She was Sister Juana Ines de 
la Cruz who forsook the viceregal court for a convent in order that she might have 
more time for writing, but who was soon silenced by the church authorities. 

Almost a century later came Lizardi, a satirist, who had to send his books 
to Havana to be published and who was bitterly persecuted by the government 
and excommunicated by the church. Nevertheless, his work did much to incite 
the struggle for independence and to-day still enjoys a great vogue. Contempor- 
ary with him was a woman writer of patriotic poems, Josepha Mendoza, who also 
did much to inspire the insurgent cause. 

In the early days of the republic two historical writers obtained fame by 
careful work. These were Bustamante and Alaman. Their books are still 
accepted as authoritative. 

There was no actual renaissance, however, till about forty years ago, when 
many of the cultured began earnest study of the public archives and to make 
revelation in prose and poetry of the ancient lore, romance and legend of the 
country. Ignacio Manuel Altamirano produced his " Rimas, " " El Movimiento 
Literario en Mexico," "Dramaturgia Mexicana," "Clemencia," "Antonio y 
Beatrix, " " Luisa, " "La Navidad en las Montanes. " 

The Paisajes of Leyendes deals with the customs and traditions. The style 
of his work is temperate and confined to the religious feasts of the country. His 



228 



MEXICO 



works contain pictures of primitive races, with their Christian rites intermingled 
with old forms of worship. His books are widely read. 

Juan Mateos is famed abroad. He is quoted everywhere and is much 
appreciated in his own land. His novels are historical, and his dramas have 

received great recogni- 
tion. 

Joaquin Garcia 
Icazbalceta took his 
countrymen to original 
documents of history 
for their information. 
His example was fol- 
lowed by Jose Bar- 
cena, Dr. E. Gonzalez, 
Manuel Orozco y Berra, 
Lie. Luis Gutierrez and 
Otero. Other writers in 
serious vein about their 
country have been Ma- 
fias Romero, so long 
minister to Washington, 
Antonio Garcia Cubas, 
and Ignacio Mariscal, 
the late distinguished 
Secretary of Foreign 
Affairs, a writer of great 
ability. He was a lin- 
guist, speaking perfectly several languages. He has written important works on 
the occult and was a graceful translator of some of the choicest poems in English 
literature, among them Poe's Raven and William Cullen Bryant's Thanatopsis, 
whose noble lines expressed much of his own aspirations. 

Francisco de la Barra, the Mexican Ambassador at Washington is a writer 
of note. Fredrico Gamboa is among the best writers of fiction. 

Sehor Justo Sierra, one of the most virile and forceful of poets, has taken great 
rank in Spain as well as in his own country. He is one of the Ministers of the 




•A PORTRAIT." BY HERMAN GEDOVIUS. 



ART AND LITERATURE 229 

Cabinet, but his literary work continues even with his dignity of position and 
arduous duty attending it. 

The historical works by Carlos Pereyra, author of "Lecturas Historicas 
Mejicanas, Historia del Pueblo Mejicano," which comprise a full story of the 
Mexicans from the early period before the Conquest to the present day, are 
very interesting and show a great knowledge of the important events of the 
Mexican nation as well as the characteristics of the people. His style is easy 
and graceful, avoiding the dryness of most works of this kind, and full of 
romance from the beginning to the end. 

Among the Mexican novelists one finds remarkably good descriptive power; 
just as the country glows with intense life and color, so do their fiction and 
poetry express fervid passion and feeling. There is a tendency to epigrammatic 
terseness in sentence and paragraph. There is invariably a deep love of nature, 
expressed in most beautiful word painting and always there is intense patriotism 
with luminous force in the expression of it. The richness of the language and 
their love of home life give the Mexican writers on this subject great oppor- 
tunities. The name of Irenio Paz, an editor as well as a novelist, is well known, 
as his simple direct style appeals to the readers. Vicente Riva Palacio, for his 
purity of language and elegance stands foremost among the writers of melo- 
dramatic intensity. His "Calvario y Tabor" is a historical novel covering 
the period of struggle which terminated in the overthrow of foreign power 
and the downfall of Maximilian, and treats of almost every possible range of 
emotion. It is a tale of the death agony of the Old Empire and the trans- 
figuration of the New Republic, intermingled with loves and romances of the 
people, their habits, their hospitalities and extreme charity. The historical 
portions of the novel are superb and there are remarkable thoughts forcibly 
expressed. 

Of original poets the last few decades have produced a great number and 
several indubitably had the divine fire. Manuel Acunha wrote several fervid 
poems of passion which have been and still are most popular. A master of 
lyrics is Guillermo Prieto, who has been acclaimed the laureate of Mexico. His 
work is the best expression of the national spirit of the people, whose patriotism 
grows steadily in fervor. 

Singers only less great than these, are Davalos, Granados, Nervo, Tiron, 
Pazaza, Othon and Urbina. Showing promise of strong work in their maturity 



230 MEXICO 

are many young men who are now producing plays, novels, and poems of worth. 
Juan de Dios Peza, whose death a few years since deprived Mexico of one of 
her best poets, wrote exquisitely "El Arpa del Amor" and "Recuerdos de 
mi vida." 

Among other writers are Rebolledo, Lopez, Campos, Urneta, Delgado, and 
Rivera. One of the most evident tendencies of these latter day authors is to 
break away from the influence of Spanish literature. Translations from the 
works of perhaps all the great writers of Europe are freely made and the American 
masters especially have been treated in this way. There is a better knowledge 
of American literature in Mexico than in any other foreign country, Great 
Britain not excepted. Naturally this study finds reflection in the Mexican 
literature, but underneath all is the growing nationalism which eventually must 
find full expression. The Golden Age of Mexican letters is not yet but there is 
promise of speedy entrance thereon. 

Meantime the government is patronizing efforts to collect the folklore, ballads 
and songs of the nation. These are being carefully compiled and edited and when 
published will afford a revelation of thought and sentiment to the world. 
Persecution and warfare have always produced the most vibrant songs and 
Mexico has had her share of both. 

Mexico is a land of book lovers. The genuine love of literature is 
universal, even the poorer classes are fond of reading love stories, and those 
having the simplest knowledge of reading find pleasure in books. There is 
a good market for books of the modern literature of France and Spain, 
and even English literature is gaining a foothold. Most wonderful libraries 
of costly editions are found in every home, especially in the homes of profes- 
sional men. 

Senator Licenciado don Francisco Alfara, the great criminal lawyer of 
Mexico, has the most remarkable collection of paintings of the old masters, 
books long out of date, and curios from every country of the world. His col- 
lection of original manuscript of old and famous writers is one of his valued 
possessions. Not only is the literature of Spain and France popular, the Mexi- 
cans have a literature of their own. As far back as 1680, King Netzahualcoyotl 
of Tezcoco wrote a poem on the "Mutability of Life." 

There are hundreds of cultivated men of Mexico who live in the enchanted 
ground of literature, contented in retirement from political discussions and 



ART AND LITERATURE 



231 



business, devoting themselves to reading; besides this, Mexico has so many 
students, so many professors graduated from the Normal Schools, and so 
many Societies of 
different cults 
that it is a Uni- 
versity centre. 

There are 
many daily pa- 
pers thriving in 
Mexico City. 
The Imparcial is 
a very important 
paper, with an 
afternoon edition 
called El Mundo; 
both of these 
periodicals have 
a large circula- 
tion. Others are 
El Tiempo, El 
Diario, which is 
on the advanced 
order of our pop- 
ular dailies, and 

Correo Espanol, a Spanish paper with a splendid editorial staff of young news- 
paper men. The Mexican Daily Record, an afternoon paper printed in English, 
has a very brilliant editorial staff, and the Mexican Herald, another English 
newspaper, is edited by an American. 

There are weekly papers which are very ably edited, Aries y Eettras is the 
most popular. El Mundo Iluslrado is well illustrated, and deals lightly with im- 
portant events of the week. La Revista Literaria, is edited by Sehor Barron 
who is a popular local poet. The first book printed in Mexico was La Escala 
Espiritual para Llegar al Cielo (The Stairway to Heaven), printed in 1537. 

In music, Mexico records no great composers of old, those of her folk 
songs being unknown, but music is a passion with the people and musical 




■CHILDREN OF MISERY." BY SOSTENES ORTEGO. 



232 



MEXICO 



education one of the chief cares of the government. Public concerts are 
generally given throughout the cities and the nation maintains a conservatory 
in the capital city wherein is one of the best libraries of music extant. All 
the great European soloists and directors look to at least one season in Mexico 
as part of their natural experience and nowhere do they find more apprecia- 
tive and critical audiences. Two, at least, of the Mexican moderns have 
achieved international fame, Antonio Zuniga, of Guanajuato, and Chang-Cilli, 
of Yucatan, whose orchestrations are familiar to and frequently used by Euro- 
pean leaders. 

Just now very intelligent efforts are being made to educate the artistic 
side of the Mexican people and although many of these take the direction of 
improving the arts and crafts for commercial advantage, the result is bound 
to be the development of individual talent. Great artists and great works of 
art are to be expected of Mexico. 




THE ROUND UP." BY JUAN URRUCHI. 




WALL AROUND THE SHRINE AT CHURUBUSCO. 



CHAPTER XII 



CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 



TH E churches of Mexico are remarkable for their beauty and solidity. There 
is no prevailing style except originality, nor is purity of style a character- 
istic of the great buildings. The Gothic, the Moorish and the Italian are often 
combined, but the harmony of design is masterfully secured and a distinctive 
attraction thereby obtained. There is a sort of abandon of genius in the 
designs and decorations of facades, towers and domes that make the work 
beautiful and uncommon, each is a unique picture, each bears the impress of 
individual artistic conception. 

Of the great church structures of the capital the most notable is the cathe- 
dral, of vast proportions and magnificent details. When Cortes had Tenoch- 
titlan finally in possession he determined on the complete destruction of the 
Aztec city. On the spot where the great Teocalli had stood, a temple hideous 
in sight and memory of the Spaniard, the Christian cathedral should be erected. 
This with the aid of unlimited slave labor was quickly accomplished. In 1527, 

235 



236 



MEXICO 



Clement VII. established the See of Mexico and Fray Juan de Zumarraga was 
instituted as the first bishop. In 1545, the bishopric was constituted an arch- 
bishopric and Bishop Zumarraga was elevated to the dignity of archbishop. 

In 1593, the corner stone of the present cathedral was laid, forty-two years 
later the foundations were completed; in 1623, the roof above the sacristy was 
finished and three years later the first service was held, but so great a delay had 
been caused by the great inundation in 1629-1635, that not till 1656 was the 
formal dedication solemnized; even then the building was unfinished and its 
final dedication was not solemnized until February 2, 1667. In 1791, the magnifi- 
cent towers were completed and the bells were hung a year later. The cost of 
the completed edifice with its decorations is many millions. Its length is over 
four hundred feet, its width one hundred and seventy-seven feet and the height 

from roof to floor one hundred and 
seventy-nine feet. The towers are 
two hundred and three feet high. 
Crowning the edifice is a splendid 
and graceful dome and lantern, the 
work of Manuel Tolsa. The cathe- 
dral was designed by Alonzo Perez 
Castaneda on the plan of a Latin 
cross. 

The principal facade faces the 
south. It is broken by three portals 
composed of the Doric and Ionic 
orders, which with the exquisitely 
wrought carvings, the friezes and 
the statuary make a most imposing 
and captivating front. The towers 
are likewise of the two orders in suc- 
cession,, the Doric and the Ionic, and 
many cornices carry fine balustrades 
with pilasters surmounted by splen- 
did urns and fine statues. 
Within, the impression is one of severe grandeur ennobled by vastness of 
space. The style is Gothic and Doric. The lofty vaulted arches are borne on 




DR. JOSE MORA, ARCHBISHOP OF MEXICO. 



CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 



237 



massive fluted columns of stone. The dome is illuminated with paintings of sacred 
subjects, among them an Assumption of the Virgin. In the aisles are fourteen 
chapels dedicated to various saints. In that 
of San Felipe de Jesus are some relics of this 
saint, and here lie the remains of Iturbide, 
the unfortunate emperor, beneath a monu- 
ment erected to "The Liberator." In the 
chapel of San Pedro lie the bodies of Arch- 
bishop Zumarraga, the first prelate of Mex- 
ico, and Gregorio Lopez, the Mexican Man 
with the Iron Mask, who is said to have 
been the son of Philip II. of Spain. There 
are some very fine altars ; the chief of which, 
the altar de los Reyes, is very imposing and 
rises to the arches of the roof. It is most 
sumptuously ornamented with carving, 
gilding and other decorations, and is the 
delight and admiration of the Indians espe- 
cially. Beneath this altar lie the remains 
of the Independence martyrs, Hidalgo, 
Allende, Aldama and Jimenez, which were 
transported thither from Guanajuato after their dishonor in that city and buried 
in the cathedral on the independence being secured. There are many fine pictures 
in this great cathedral; a San Sebastian by La Sumaya, the wife of Baltazar 
Echave, a Candelaria by Echave, the Assumption and the Epiphany by the Mex- 
ican painter Juan Rodriguez Juarez; the Entry into Jerusalem and the Catholic 
Church and the Assumption by Juan Correa, the Triumph of the Sacrament, the Im- 
maculate Conception, and the Glory of St. Michael, by Villalpando, the Last Supper 
and the Triumph of Faith, by Alcibar, the Virgin of Bethlehem by Murillo, the Vir- 
gin by Cortona, and John of Austria imploring the Virgin at the Battle of Lepanto. 
There are many historical churches in the capital, some of which date from 
the sixteenth century. Many were founded as convents and monasteries 
through the munificence of private donors or through the efforts of religious 
orders, and the history of Mexico is closely interwoven with not a few of these 
establishments. 




THE CROWN OF THE VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE. 



238 MEXICO 

Santa Brigida is the fashionable church of the capital. It was built in 
connection with the Order of Saint Bridget which was established in Mexico by 
Jose de Aguirre and his wife, Doha Gertrudiz Roldan. 

The Church of the Colegio de las Ninas is an ancient establishment founded by 
Fray Pedro de Gante. The college was provided to furnish free education for girls. 

The church and convent of Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion was estab- 
lished by a Franciscan monk, Fray Antonio de la Cruz. 

The Church of San Cosme was founded in 1538, as a hospital for Indians, 
the chapel being dedicated to the Arabian doctors Cosmo and Damian. It 
later came under the charge of the Franciscans, who built the monastery and the 
present church which, however, was not completed till 1675, and dedicated to 
Nuestra Senora de la Consolacion, as an act of gratitude by one who received, 
shelter in the monastery during a storm. A curious painting in the church rep- 
resents the grateful donor transferring the title of patron, which he had declined, 
to San Jose. The painting is the work of Jose de Alcibar. 

I n the Church of Santa Cruz y Soledad, built in 1731, but which was originally 
founded in 1534 as an Indian mission, are splendid decorations of altar and chapel 
by celebrated Mexican artists, but the most interesting feature is the image of 
Nuestra Senora del Refugio which was formerly attached to a wall on the Calle 
del Refugio. 

San Diego contains several paintings by Vallejo, the famous. Mexican artist, 
the pupil of the Indian painter, Cabrera, the chief of which are The Prayer in the 
Garden and The Last Supper, and the famed altar pieces The Virgin of Guadalupe 
and San Jose. 

Santo Domingo is one of the finest and largest churches in the capital and 
contains some fine paintings especially The Crucifixion and San Ildefonso. This 
church stands where the legend says the Aztecs saw the eagle with a serpent in its 
beak, the omen that decided on their establishing their chief seat. This church is 
on the Plaza de Santo Domingo in which is erected the handsome commemora- 
tive statue of Senora Dona Josefa Dominguez the heroine of the Independence, 
whose timely warning gave the patriots at Queretaro a chance of escape. 

The Church of San Francisco, now a protestant temple, is all that remains 
of the great religious establishment of the Franciscan Order, founded on the 
grounds once occupied by the menagerie of the Aztec Imperial household. 
The original church was erected by the Twelve Apostles of Mexico and Fray 



CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 



239 



Pedro de Gante and the cost of building was borne by the Conqueror. With the 
grandeur of Spanish Mexico and with all the sorrows of Republican Mexico in 




THE SHRINE OF GUADALUPE. 



its earlier days this great establishment was intimately concerned. It was the 
last to conspire against the nationality of Mexico as a republic and this con- 
spiracy cost it its real existence, for it never recovered either its prestige or 
its entire possessions in the interval before the monastic institution was sup- 
pressed by President Juarez, in 1860. The great treasures of the church, the 
ornaments, jewels and paintings were then forfeited and placed in the Academy 
of Fine Arts. Historically the Church of San Francisco is the most inter- 
esting in the Republic. It was the centre of all the Catholic religion. Under 
able and zealous management it became the most powerful and prosper- 
ous church in the Crown colony. From it sprang the first Indian school 
and the first theological seminary and it was here the art of painting was 
first taught by the Spaniards. It was the favorite church of Cortes where he 
heard the mass. 



240 



MEXICO 



Many of the viceroys worshipped here during the three centuries of Spanish 
rule. On December 27, 1821, was sung herein the Te Deum to commemorate 
the Independence of Mexico. On June 12, 1859, President Juarez signed the 
famous Leyes de Reforma, which aimed at the nationalization of all church 
property. These took effect in 1860, and the year after all religious orders 
were suppressed. This property of the Franciscans was sold and the money 
given to the hospitals and schools. 

San Hipolito stands on the spot made sacred by the defeat of the Spaniards 
by the Aztecs on La Noche Triste. On their recovery of the city on August 13, 
1521, a little adobe chapel was erected in memory of the soldiers who fell on July 
1, 1520, and in 1599 the present magnificent edifice was begun which was not com- 
pleted till 1739. For a long time, 
on the 13th of August, a commemo- 
rative procession bore in march the 
crimson banner of the Conquest. 

The defeat of the Dismal Night 
is commemorated on a stone tab- 
let surmounting a corner of this 
church, which translated reads: 
"So great was the slaughter of the 
Spaniards by the Aztecs at this 
place on the night of July 1, 1520, 
called for that reason the Dismal 
Night, that after having in the fol- 
lowing year re-entered the city in 
triumph, the conquerors resolved 
to build here a chapel, to be called 
the Chapel of the Martyrs; and 
which should be dedicated to San 
Hipolito, because the capture of the 
city occurred on that Saint's Day." 
One of the most notable of the churches is that of Jesus Nazareno. It 
was founded as Nuestra Senora de la Purisima Concepcion by Cortes on the 
final occupation of the capital and furnished with ample funds for its erection 
and maintenance by the provisions of his will. In this church the bones of the 




SANTA MONICA, GUADALUPE. 



CHURCHES JND CHARITIES 



241 



conqueror rested from 1794 to 1823, when they were removed to Italy. The 
building began in 1575, and it was dedicated ninety years later, when its name 
was changed because of a miracu- 
lous image of Jesus of Nazareth that 
was bequeathed to the church by a 
pious Indian woman. The edifice 
contains much of the original interior 
carved woodwork, altars and other 
decorations. In this church lie the 
remains of Manuel Vilar, the sculp- 
tor, Lucas Alaman, the historian and 
statesman, Manuel Calderon and 
Fray Juan Crisostomo Najera. 

Nuestra Senora de Loreto was 
originally founded by the Jesuit 
Order in 1573, an edifice of canes and 
reeds, dedicated to San Gregorio. In 
1675, Padre Juan Zappa brought the 
image of Our Lady of Loreto to 
Mexico. The erection of chapels took 
place in 1686 and 1738, but the pres- 
ent church was not dedicated till 
1816. The tower of this church has 

leaned for seventy-eight years as the result of subsidence of one side of the edifice 
owing to inundation. There are some fine paintings by Joaquin Esquivel. 

The Church of Nuestra Senora de los Angeles has a singular history. I n 1580, 
an Indian chief, Isayoque, found on the waters of the inundation a beautiful pic- 
ture of the Virgin, to preserve which he built an adobe chapel, but instead of placing 
therein the original, he had a replica painted on the wall by an eminent artist. Later 
this wall was built into a larger chapel, and in 1607 the inundation almost obliter- 
ated the painting, save the hands and face, which was deemed a miracle. The pres- 
ent church was completed only in 1808. The miraculous picture is supplied with a 
dress to cover the missing parts and is now enclosed in glass to preserve what is left. 

One of the handsomest of the churches is La Profesa which dates from 1595, 
when it was founded by the Jesuits, whose order accumulated great wealth and 




ORGAN IN THE CATHEDRAL, MEXICO CITY. 



242 MEXICO 

possessed great influence, till they were expelled in 1767. The decorations of 
this church are among the finest in Mexico and there are several pictures of 
considerable reputation, The Adoration of the Cross and The Seven Sacraments 
being of prominent merit. The splendid altar is the inspiration of Tolsa. This 
masterpiece was designed by Pelegrin Clave and his pupils, Petronilo Monroy, 
Felipe Castro and Jose Ramirez. It was in this church that the movement was 
planned as the result of which Iturbide acquired the independence of Mexico. 

Santa Teresa La Antigua is one of the very interesting church establish- 
ments. The convent of Santa Teresa was founded in 1616, and the building 
of the present church was commenced in 1678, and its completion and dedication 
was made in 1684; it was very badly injured by the earthquake of 1845, but has 
been splendidly restored. It possesses a miraculous crucifix brought from 
Spain in 1545, and long kept in a church at Cardonal, in Hidalgo state. The 
legend as to this crucifix says that it was once so disfigured by an accident that 
it was thrown into the fire, without any change resulting, that it was then 
buried and when later taken up it reassumed its original freshness and state. 
To secure the crucifix a pitched battle was fought between the partisans of 
Archbishop Zuniga and those of the Cardonal church, and the former were 
victorious, and the treasure was deposited in Santa Teresa. 

Another church founded by Cortes was Santa Vera Cruz, in connection 
with a brotherhood whose mission was to comfort condemned criminals. The 
church possesses a venerated shrine encircled with seven veils and within the 
shrine is a crucifix, a visit to which on a specified day secures indulgences. The 
present church dates from 1730. 

There are several protestant churches now in the City of Mexico. The 
Christ Church, Episcopal, Trinity, Methodist Episcopal and San Lorenzo for 
English speaking Catholics. 

The legends of a country often have a more real and actuating influence on its 
people than does its history. The miraculous or wonderworking thread woven into 
the tale appeals more forcefully than the soberer facts of very truth. The touch 
of mystery chains the interest while it seems to silence the spirit of questioning. 
Mexico is rich in legends, and their best lore is perpetuated in the many shrines. 

Of all the shrines of Mexico, the most sacred and venerated is "Our Lady of 
Guadalupe." Here is the Christian shrine to the Mother of the Saviour; and 
here, too, the Aztecs tendered homage and worship to Tonatzin, who to them was 



CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 



243 



the "Mother of Gods." The Christian legend tells that in 1531, a pious Indian 
named Juan Diego was on his way from the village of Tolpetlac to attend mass 
at Santiago Tlaltelolco and passing around the hill of Tepeyacac, he heard sweet 




CHURCH NEAR COYOACAN. 



voices singing; terrified, he looked up and saw a lady who bade him listen to 
her: he should go to the bishop and tell him that she willed that a temple in her 
honor should be built on that hill. The figure vanished, and Diego did her 
command, but the bishop sent him away, giving no credence to his tale. Re- 
turning to the place of the vision, Diego found the lady awaiting him and he 
told her of his interview with the bishop. She bade him to return to the place 
the next day, Sunday. Diego returned accordingly and for the third time the 
vision greeted him, and he was commanded to repeat his former message to the 
bishop, who, still incredulous, required some convincing token of the truth of his 
message; at the same time he sent two servants to watch Juan Diego. On the 
latter's approaching the hill he was lost to the view of the servants and passing 
round the side of the hill he saw the lady, to whom he stated the bishop's re- 
quirement. She commanded him to come again the next day. This he was 



244 



MEXICO 



unable to do, for on returning home he found his uncle ill and he must attend him. 
On the day after, the uncle being at the point of death, Juan Diego set out for 
Tlaltelolco to fetch a confessor and fearing delay if he met the lady, he went 
around the other side of the hill. There to his surprise he saw her descending 
the hillside and calling to him. He made known his urgent case, and she assured 
him that his uncle was already cured of his fever. Then she commanded him to 
ascend to the barren hilltop to gather roses, and there, where none had ever grown, 
they appeared. She directed him to take these roses to the bishop as the desired 
token, bidding him to show them to none other. Happily did Juan fill his iilma 
with the lovely blooms and set out for the bishop's dwelling. From the spot 
where the lady stood gushed forth a spring of crystal water which has continued 
flowing and is a cure for all human ills. Diego was soon before the bishop and 
unfolding his tilma as he dropped the roses at the feet of the bishop, he saw the 

image of the Virgin depicted on the 
coarse fibrous material, painted in 
wonderfully beautiful colors, in a 
cloak of blue velvet bedecked with 
stars of gold. The prelate was 
convinced; he took the miraculous 
tilma and deposited it in his ora- 
tory as a priceless treasure. Diego 
returned to his home, escorted by 
the bishop's servants, and found 
that his uncle had been cured at 
the very hour when the Virgin 
assured his recovery. 

On the spot where the roses had 
miraculously bloomed, a church 
was soon built, and on February 7, 
1532, the sacred tilma was placed 
over the altar within the shrine. 
From that time an annual festival 
has been held on the 12th of De- 
cember. But it was not until Pope 
facade of san agustin. Benedict XIV., in 1754, issued a 




CHURCHES JND CH.4RITIFS 



245 



Bull authorizing the feast that offi- 
cial recognition of the Virign of 
Guadalupe as protectress and pa- 
troness of Mexico was gained. 

The church was the especial 
pride of the Indians, and they felt 
a new motive for joining the Chris- 
tian establishment. They now had 
their Mother of God. The original 
portrait is richly framed in gold 
inlaid with diamonds and pearls. 
The picture appears alike on both 
sides of the rough canvas, which 
is without sizing or preparation. 
Experts have from time to time 
examined it without being able to 
account for its production or pres- 
ervation. The coloring process is 
inexplicable; it partakes of the 
characteristics of oil, water and 
distemper coloring and relief work, 
and these processes are apparent in different portions of the picture; more- 
over the gilding of the stars embroidered on the cloak and in its texture, as 
well as. in the light-rays emanating from the figure, is not applied like any 
known process, but appears rather to be woven into the fibre of the canvas 
than painted on it. A further miraculous attribute is seen in the complete 
preservation of the picture, which for many years was entirely unprotected 
by a covering, and exposed to conditions that would have destroyed even very 
hard substances. 

The devotion accorded to "Our Lady of Guadalupe" is universal in Mexico. 
The festival day is a religious holiday throughout the republic, and is especially- 
kept by the Indians, who come from all quarters to the shrine for devotion. It 
was the banner of this Virgin that was taken from the little sanctuary at Atoton- 
ilco by Hidalgo when on his march on San Miguel and he adopted "Guadalupe" 
as the battle cry of independence. 




THE SACRED WELL AT GUADALUPE. 



246 MEXICO 

The holy image of the tilma was removed from its shrine on the occasion of 
the great inundation of 1629, and the saving of the city by the Virgin implored. 
The image was placed in the cathedral, attended with imposing ceremony in 
transmission, and there it remained for four years. Its miracles are reputed 
wonderful, all manners of healing are attributed to it. 

In 1622, the image was enshrined in a new and much larger church. In 
1709, the large temple was dedicated. The altar was designed by Tolsa in 1802, 
but was not completed till 1836. The great chancel was enclosed by a heavy 
silver railing set on a base of white marble. But the crowning glory of the edifice 
of "Our Lady of Guadalupe" was the great aspiration and chief lifework of 
Father Antonio Plancarte y Labastida, who began the work of restoration and 
embellishment in 1887 and completed it in 1895, when the tilma was crowned 
by authority of Pope Leo XI 1 1., with attendant ceremonies of the most imposing 
magnificence, in the presence of thirty-eight archbishops and bishops, hundreds 
of priests and fifty thousand laymen from all parts of Mexico and the rest of 
the Western Continent, on October 12, 1895. 

The crown is a splendid product of the goldsmith's art and of an enormous 
intrinsic value. The gold and the precious stones were contributed by the 
women of Mexico from their own most prized jewels and represent a vast 
treasure. Around the rim at the base are twenty-two enamelled shields repre- 
senting the dioceses of the republic illumined with sapphires and emeralds. 
Above this is a row of angels, each bearing a brilliant ruby on its breast, 
and supporting six enamelled escutcheons blazoned with the arms of the 
six archbishops of Mexico, framed by exquisitely wrought wreaths and en- 
circled with diamonds. Rising behind the angels and extending to the apex 
of the crown are festoons of roses of gold alternated with stars of diamonds, 
which cluster at the top beneath an enamelled globe on which Mexico and 
the Gulf are depicted. Above the globe is the Mexican eagle bearing in one 
talon the globe and with the other holding aloft a cross of diamonds. From a 
ring in the cross the crown is suspended over the sacred image by a cherub. 
The fineness and richness of the work, in which there is no repetition of a 
single 'decorative detail, make this crown the most distinguished of its class in 
religious use. 

The coronation scene was unique in the history of Mexico; the patron 
saint of the nation, the especial protectress of the Indians, was to receive divine 



CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 



247 



honors with all the pomp and ceremony of official sanction and authority. Gor- 
geously robed, the dignitaries of the church surrounded the throne of the arch- 
bishop — for the church has the recognized organization of a cathedral — who 
received the priceless crown from the hands of twelve of Mexico's distinguished 
women, representing the contributors, after the papal brief authorizing the coro- 
nation was read, and the action notarially certified. Then the air was rent with 
the salute of cannon and the unchained voices of the bells. Within the walls 
of the church crowded adorers knelt, and without, multitudes with bowed heads, 



,i : jf,il1tiJU3 ; ■ ' ,] ¥-lif: : I 

:; Tiiiis i;Jii;ifi fi?| 




LUNATIC ASYLUM. 



reverentially adoring, awaited the solemn moment when the crown should be 
raised to the brow of the Virgin of Guadalupe. 

The crown having been blessed by the archbishop, a solemn mass was 
celebrated, and then in grand procession it was borne by the canons through the 
crowded basilica and outside around the edifice and then returned to the sanc- 
tuary. Here, the archbishop of Mexico, assisted by the arch-prelate of Mich- 
oacan, ascended the lofty platform and placed the consecrated crown above the 
head of the Virgin of Guadalupe over the miraculous tilma. As the act of 
coronation was completed the devotional enthusiasm of the people broke forth 
amid tears and sobs, in shouts of " Viva Dios!" " Viva Madre de Dios!" " Viva 



248 MEXICO 

Mexico!" and the cries were taken up without till the hill and the valley had 
spoken with tens of thousands of voices; then the bishops, one by one, ascended 
the altar steps and in devout homage laid crosiers and mitres before the image 
of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The great event, at the same moment, gave tongue 
to every church bell in the land, which proclaimed the glorious fact of the coro- 
nation to the devout children of the church. 

The restoration of the church was completed simultaneously with the coro- 
nation and the sacred image of the tilma was returned from its eight-years' 
repose in the neighboring church of the Capuchin Nuns to its own repository 
in the basilica of Our Lady, on September 30, 1895. The benefactor, Father 
Plancarte y Labastida lived to rejoice in the crowning culmination of his great 
work; he died in 1898. 

The interior of the basilica is of the Doric order. It is about two hundred 
and fifty feet long and one hundred and twenty-five wide. Its three aisles are 
divided by eight Corinthian columns. Of the eighteen arches, the central one 
carries the dome with its lantern, the top of which is one hundred and twenty- 
five feet from the pavement of the church. The feature of chief interest is the 
high altar in which is framed the sacred tilma. This is of spotlessly white 
Carrara marble, magnificently sculptured and exquisitely wrought with gilded 
bronze, done after the designs of the celebrated Mexican artists, Agea and Salome 
Pina. The marble was carved by the sculptor Nicoli at Carrara and the bronze 
was wrought at Brussels. On the right and left sides of the altar are, respec- 
tively, marble figures of Juan Zumarraga, the first bishop of Mexico, and the 
Indian, Juan Diego, to whom the Virgin of Guadalupe appeared, and in front 
is the kneeling figure of Archbishop Labastida y Davalos, whose fostering care 
made the great work possible. Over the frame holding the image of the tilma 
are sculptured in relief three angels, emblematic of the archdioceses of Mexico, 
Michoacan and Guadalajara and commemorative of the services rendered by 
their archprelates in securing the papal authority for the coronation of the Virgin. 
The baldaquin over the altar is of byzantine style and is carried on pillars of 
Scotch granite; the arch is surmounted by a gilded cross of roses. The front 
arch of the baldaquin carries the arms of Pope Leo XIII., on the other three are 
those of the archbishops of Mexico, Michoacan and Guadalajara, and inscribed 
in Gothic letters are the Latin verses written by Leo XIII., for the occasion of 
the coronation: 



CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 249 

Mexicus heic populus mira sub Imagine gaudet 
Te colore, alma Parens, praesidioque frui. 
Per te sic vigeat felix, teque auspice, Christi 
Immotam servet firmior usque fidem. 

LEO PP. XIII. 

"The Mexican people rejoice in worshipping Thee, Holy Mother, under this 
miraculous image, and in looking to Thee for protection. May that people, 
through Thee, flourish in happiness and ever under Thy auspices, grow stronger 
in the faith of Christ." Bronze statues are placed between the arches, repre- 
senting Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance. 

The vaulted roof is studded with gilded cedarwood stars ; the beams are richly 
ornamented in rich Byzantine style. The dome is profusely decorated with gold 
and roses in festoons; and the panels are filled with frescoes of the Virgin of 
Guadalupe, of angels bearing scrolls, and allegorical tributes of the Virgin. In 
the four spaces between the dome stand figures of the four Evangelists. 

Splendid frescoes adorn the walls of the church. 

The homage paid to the Virgin of Guadalupe is universal in Mexico. In 
every home of rich and poor alike, her picture is to be found, an honored posses- 
sion, even in most of the shops of Mexico a lamp burns ever before her picture 
and there are few churches without an altar before which to do her reverence. 
When the country was rent by the passions and fury of war and churches were 
stripped and despoiled of their priceless objects and decorations, the shrine of 
Our Lady of Guadalupe was too sacred for the despoiler. His hand was nerve- 
less to desecrate this revered shrine. 

This venerated basilica is the chief of a group of churches connected with 
the legend of Our Lady of Guadalupe. To the east of the shrine is the Chapel 
of the Well, built on the spot and in commemoration of the miracle of the spring 
that gushed where the Virgin stood at the moment that she dispatched Juan Diego 
to the bishop with the roses. The chapel was built in 1791, and the spring is just 
within its door. Beneath the dome, which is covered with glazed tiles, is the altar 
and a carved pulpit upborne by a figure of Juan Diego ; the mural decorations are 
paintings of the Indian's visions of the Virgin. The Chapel of the Little Hill, is 
erected on the spot where, at the Virgin's will, bloomed the roses on the previously 
barren rock. The first chapel was built in 1660, but was replaced by the present 



250 



MEXICO 



edifice early in the eighteenth century. These auxiliary establishments are con- 
nected by a stone stairway, about halfway up which is a votive offering, the Stone 
Sails of Guadalupe, made by sailors who implored the aid of the Virgin in their dis- 
tress and, being saved, they accordingly brought before the shrine the foremast 
of their vessel and the sails, which latter are there encased in stone. 




THE GENERAL HOSPITAL. CITY OF MEXICO. 



Besides these chapels, there is the church of the Capuchin Nuns, forming a 
group of establishments more widely known and honored and visited by more 
persons than any other shrine in Mexico. Our Lady of Guadalupe is the Lourdes 
of Mexico, the holiest of Mexico's sacred places. 

Another shrine highly venerated by Mexicans is the Church of "Our Lady 
of Los Remedios. " The legend upon which its veneration rests antedates that of 
Our Lady of Guadalupe. The story told of the image enshrined in this church is 
that it was brought to Mexico from Spain by a soldier in the following of Cortes, 
named Juan Rodriguez de Villafuerte, who, in the flight on the Noche Triste took 
the image from the great Aztec temple, where it had been placed in a shrine, and 



CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 251 

carried it as far as the hill of Totoltepec, where his strength failing, he hid it under a 
broad maguey plant. It was thereafter lost to knowledge for nearly twenty years, 
when an Indian chief, who was hunting on the hill was greeted by the Virgin, who 
required him to seek for her image hidden beneath a maguey plant. He searched 
in vain. Again the Virgin appeared and repeated her command, with the same 
result. A third time the vision appeared, and the same command was given. 
Further effort at length rewarded the searcher and he took the image to his home, 
but in the morning it was missing, and again was found under the maguey plant 
where it had been discovered. This time the Indian placed before the image a 
gourd filled with dainties of food; again it disappeared. Once more the chief 
brought it home and placed it in a bolted and locked box, on which, for further 
safety, he slept ; but the box was empty in the morning. These strange experiences 
led the Indian to seek the advice of the padres, to whom he told his story, and they, 
deeming that a miracle had been wrought and a command conveyed to build a 
temple to the Virgin on the spot of her appearance, decided to fulfil the command. 

Soon thereafter, on the spot where the image was found, a shrine was built 
and dedicated by the Spaniards to "Our Lady of Succor" in gratitude for her 
salvation of their lives. The image is about eight inches high and is carved in 
wood; it bears in its arms a figure of the infant Jesus. The shrine also contains 
the gourd in which the food was placed before the sacred image, while under the 
main altar, near the remains of the Indian, Juan Aguila Tobar, is the box in 
which the image was locked to prevent its escape. The walls of the original 
church remain in the existing edifice, completed in 1575; but the church has lost 
much of its former magnificence and costly decorations of precious metals and 
paintings. The priceless wardrobe and jewels of the Virgin remain in testimony 
of the virtue attributed to the miraculous image. 

After the battle of Las Cruces, when Hidalgo was within six leagues of the 
capital with his independence army, Viceroy Venegas, alarmed, had the image 
of the Virgin of Los Remedios brought from Totoltepec to the cathedral in the 
capital, and there kneeling before it, invoked its aid, placed the viceregal staff 
in its hands, and solemnly hailed it as "lady captain general of the army." 
The royalists inscribed on their banner the image of Nuestra Senora de los Re- 
medios, just as Hidalgo had adopted for the patriots that of Nuestra Senora de 
Guadalupe. In seasons of drought, also, this sacred image is taken from its 
hill shrine and borne in solemn procession through the streets of the capital. 



252 



MEXICO 



Mexico City is liberally furnished with institutions for the care of the in- 
digent afflicted and for orphans. The special retreats for the blind, the deaf and 
dumb strikingly exhibit the conception of the obligation of the municipality to 
ameliorate the distressing conditions which the afflicted in these respects suffer. 
Every care and comfort is provided for. So too, the orphans have a home that 
shields them from danger, ministers to their needs, and gives them instruction 
that will fit them for a life of personal advancement and state advantage. 




THE CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL, FEDERAL DISTRICT. 



The General Hospital is a monument of enterprise. It is the culmination 
of a long-cherished ambition of General Diaz, whose desire was to see Mexico 
equipped with a hospital for the poor that would meet all the needs of the City. 
It was completed in 1905, and is conceded to be one of the largest and most 
splendidly-appointed hospitals in the world. It has about twenty-eight pavilions 
and accommodations for over eight hundred patients. 

This splendid institution has every facility of a modern hospital, being built 
after years of study of all the hospitals of the world. 1 1 is conducted on scientific 
principles, and the system and precision with which it is managed has created great 



CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 253 

comment from scientists who have visited it. Its doors are always open and the 
poor have a refuge at all hours. There no questions are asked, a warm bed and 
good food are ready at all hours. It is under the direction of Dr. Liceago. 

The maternity ward is most interesting and there is a school and kinder- 
garten for poor, infirm children of tender age. In connection with this there is a 
school for nurses which has opened a new field for women, as formerly all trained 
nurses were foreigners. 

The American Hospital and the American Benevolent Society are both 
good institutions, the later was founded by Honorable J. W. Foster, who was 
at that time American Minister in Mexico. 

There are many other charitable institutions of this kind in Mexico and the 
suburbs, some of them dating back to the time of Cortes, notably the Foundling 
Hospital, founded in 1767, and the Hospital of Jesus of Nazareth, founded by 
Cortes in 1527. The first meeting of Cortes and Montezuma took place on the 
site of the Hospital de Jesus Narareno. The quaint architectural features are 
most attractive. The building is nondescript, but surrounding this is a beautiful 
garden. On a tablet let into one of the walls is the interesting inscription in 
Spanish — A Hospital of the Clean Conception of the most Holy Mary and Jesus 
of Nazareth. It is the oldest and was founded on this famous site of Paganism 
known as Huitzillan, in the year 1527, and re-established and remodeled in 1838. 

El Hospicio De Ninos (the Children's Hospital) at Tlalpam was founded 
in 1765 by Dr. Fernando Ortiz Cortes. It is non-sectarian and is supported by 
the government. It has lately been remodeled, and accommodates a thousand 
children. All classes of trades and useful arts are taught and some fine speci- 
mens of needle work are done by the girls. 

There are splendid charities under the protection of Madame Carmen 
Romero Rubio de Diaz, and many private institutions. The Home for Working 
Women was founded by her. The object of this establishment is the teaching 
and taking care of the children of working women. Madame Sofia de Osio de 
Landa y Escandon, the wife of the Governor of the district, is the president of 
a society for the protection of the poor. To this belong the best ladies of the 
city, who devote much of their time to the poor and friendless of the capital. 

Madame Ramon Corral and her beautiful daughters are most active in all 
charitable work. 

Under the supervision and encouragement of Madame Diaz the School of 



254 



MEXICO 



Nurses was established, where the native girls are educated free in medicine and 
nursing. Every year diplomas are granted to at least twenty trained nurses. 

The Florence Crittenden Industrial School was established in September, 
1902, under the direction of Senora Herlinda de la Guerra de Sepulveda, begin- 
ning with a small number of inmates. Its mission is to receive and protect poor 
girls, and to teach them to be self-supporting, giving them an industrial educa- 
tion and fitting them to take their places well equipped to render them good wives 
and mothers. There they receive the instruction prescribed by the Department 
of Public Instruction, with strict attention to the moral and physical develop- 
ment. The management of this school is under the direction of ladies competent 
to "instruct in the best moral training." The kindergarten is one of the features. 
The school is located in the picturesque town of Mixcoac, quite near the city. It 
has lovely grounds and gardens and fine hygienic arrangements, making the place 
healthy and attractive. It has now about one hundred girls and the efficiency 
displayed in the management entitles this institution to all aid and sympathy. 

There are homes for disabled men and women ; free hospitals for the sick 
and needy. There are churches where bread and nourishing food are given every 
day to those who seek it. There are homes for motherless babes, and a haven 
for all unfortunates. There are industrial colleges for wayward boys and girls, 
who are gently instructed in the ways of good citizens and many splendid records 
have been made by former inmates. In no country are there more charitable 
institutions than in Mexico. 




PAVILIONS OF THE GENERAL HOSPITAL. 




NATIONAL SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. 



CHAPTER XIII 



EDUCATION 



A MARKED difference is presented to-day in the picture of public instruc- 
tion, sheltered under the mantle of peace, compared with that which was 
offered during the times of political agitation and revolution. This interesting 
feature, the principal and most solid foundation of the future prosperity of this 
country, receives each day further development, thanks to the vigorous impulse 
impressed upon it from all sides. While public authorities in all branches, moved 
by generous emulation, have made enduring souvenirs of their occupancy of 
office, this is particularly the case of the department of public instruction. 
Outside of the great cities the academy diffuses the light of civilization, and even 
in the smallest hamlet public and private schools extend the knowledge of the 
people in every useful department. Primary instruction is given almost every- 
where. In the largest municipalities the governments either directly support 

or subsidize a great number of these establishments. Manv schools the creation 

257 



258 



MEXICO 



of which is due to private initiative are endowed by individuals or are under the 
direction and surveillance of benevolent societies. In 1906, there was created 
a new seat in the cabinet, the Secretary of Public Instruction and Fine Arts. 
Since then there is an increased interest in school work. Each year two pro- 
fessors from the Normal School are sent to America and Europe to see the best 
physical institutes and to study the new school systems. 

As in all progressive lands, education is the foundation of prosperity, and 
activity in that direction has been very great among those who realize that it is 
the basis of their existence. Schools have been established in all parts of the 

republic, and now the poorest 
Indian child has its opportuni- 
ties for learning. 

Compulsory education 
being one of the features it is 
seldom that the common peo- 
ple are found without ele- 
mentary knowledge. This 
branch of learning comprises 
civic instruction, the Mexican 
language, arithmetic, history 
of the country, natural science, 
practical geometry, drawing, 
singing, physical culture, fine 
needle work and plain sewing. 
With the administration 
of President Diaz there was a 
great change in the educa- 
tional policy. Day and night 
schools were opened every- 
where for the poorer classes, 
and every substantial branch 
of practical learning has been 
placed within reach of not 
only the young but the adult laboring class, and the interest that has steadily 
grown in this movement has been of great material benefit to Mexico. In the 




PATIO OF THE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. 



EDUCATION 



259 



general system of education in pursuance of the Government's desire to educate 
the working element, there are two classes of schools, the supplementary, which 
are the means of giving pri- 
mary instruction to those un- 
able to acquire it, and the 
complementary, which gives an 
opportunity to those having a 
little learning to gain more. 
Primary, normal and profes- 
sional schools are within the 
grasp of every one, the system 
of education being entirely free, 
even books and every facility 
to gain knowledge is furnished 
by the Government. 

Education in Mexico be- 
gun with the Conquest, and 
some institutions of learning 
were then established, among 
them the College of San Juan 
de Letran, in 1530, and the 
University of Mexico, which 
was opened in 1553. There 
was a lull in interest on ac- 
count of the unstable condi- 
tions, and some of the great 
seats of learning were discon- 
tinued. When Baron Von 

Humboldt, the German explorer, visited Mexico in the earlier part of the eigh- 
teenth century, one of his first reports to his sovereign was relative to the great 
advancement of higher education in the New Spain. This was said of the higher 
classes, not of the poorer people, who were illiterate and superstitious. To-day 
the moral precepts that are instilled into these people as well as the development 
of their mental faculties, give every man an incentive to be a good and honorable 
citizen, and it is with great satisfaction that those interested in this great reform 




NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS. 



260 



MEXICO 



have seen its splendid results. After the adoption of the Federal Constitution, it 
required a great deal of activity on the part of the officials to establish a common 
school instruction throughout the republic. 

As each state was responsible for its schools it was very difficult after years 
of warfare and unsettled conditions to establish a system of education without 
taxation for that purpose. School buildings were erected, teachers employed, 
and gradually the interest of the people grew. Now no country can boast of a 
finer educational foundation than Mexico. Greater attention is directed toward 
manual training and domestic economy than in any other country in the world. 
The Federal primary schools are divided into two groups, day and night schools, 
for children, and the working classes of both sexes. Belonging to the first group 
are the kindergarten, elementary for mixed classes, and general high schools 
and special high schools. These are divided into mercantile and industrial, and 
those who graduate are permitted to enter the normal school. 

All the primaries of the Federal District are under the general direction of 
Primary Education, except the kindergartens, which are under the supervision 
of the Minister of Instruction and Belles Artes. In Mexico City and its outlying 

territories much care has 
been taken to organize a 
splendid school system ; 
new buildings, sanitary in 
every respect, suitable to 
accommodate the demand 
of the multiplying attend- 
ance, and a standard of 
education so advanced that 
Mexico has achieved a 
great thing in meeting the 
needs of her people. The 
. better classes were in 
former years forced to 
send their children abroad 
to school. The best professors direct the courses of study and every art and 
craft known is taught. Splendid playgrounds for children and gymnasiums are 
installed in all the modern school buildings. 




SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR MEN. 



EDUCATION 



261 



Normal schools for men and women in which they become masters of the 
art of teaching are one of the chief features of the educational system. 

The Catholic Church takes 
great interest in education and 
maintains branches of all its well- 
known teaching fraternities and 
sisterhoods. Besides the parochial 
schools many academies and col- 
leges are conducted throughout 
the land and the teaching is on 
the same high plane as in other 
countries. The Sisters of the 
Sacred Heart direct the finishing- 
schools for girls and the Jesuits 
most of the colleges and semi- 
naries for young men. There 
are many private schools with 
a high standard of study, be- 
sides finishing schools of splendid 
order. They are patronized 
by the better classes and the 
result is that Mexico boasts 
of delightful men and women, 
well informed boys and girls, 

and the Nation's younger element are developing well in the progress of their, 
country, and are being fitted for important positions they must surely fill 
some day. 

The National Conservatory of Music sends yearly into the world fin- 
ished artists and professors and the many histrionic and musical societies 
in the Capital are ample proofs of the splendid training received in this 
institution. Languages are taught in every school, and most versatile lin- 
guists are found in Mexico, from the tradesmen to the Ministers of the Cab- 
inet. Some of the greatest men of Mexico, whose names are of universal 
fame, graduated from the National School of Jurisprudence and the School 
of Medicine. 




SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR WOMEN. 



262 



MEXICO 




ENTRANCE TO SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS. 



In the penitentiaries of every state in the Republic there are schools con- 
ducted with the finest masters to be obtained, and each prison has an orchestra 

or band which has the full 
benefit of instruction in 
music. The School of En- 
gineering gives as good a 
course as may be had at 
any university. A School 
of Mines and a School of 
Agriculture exists and are 
splendid institutions. The 
Colegio de la Paz, once a 
religious school, is now con- 
trolled by the Government, 
and largely supported by 
its own endowment. Its 
building is one of the greatest in the city. In rank just below these great 
public institutions of instruction come the Schools of Industry for men and 
women, for deaf mutes 
and for the blind, reforma- 
tories, business colleges 
and a school of arts and 
crafts. 

Amid wars and the 
care of material affairs, 
Mexico has never ne- 
glected the aesthetic and 
the intellectual. Institu- 
tions devoted to culture of 
every kind are important 
and are very liberally 
maintained. The national 

library — biblioteca national — occupies the beautiful old edifice once the church 
of San Agustin, which has been modified to meet the purposes of a library 
while preserving the beauty of the old church. Along two sides of the building 




SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS. 



EDUCATION 



263 



stretches a pretty garden enclosed by a high iron railing, the posts of which 
bear commemorative busts of eminent Mexican writers beginning with the 
Aztec Netzahualcoyotl, Ixtlilxo- 
chitl, and coming through the list 
of colonial writers brings us to the 
modern Mexican litterati. The 
classic interior of the building 
lends a dignity and grace befit- 
ting the place. Statues of didactic 
writers adorn the walls, including 
the biblical teacher Isaiah and the 
great oriental master Confucius, 
and at the other extreme are the 
figures of Humboldt and Cuvier. 

Of the literature housed in 
this library a large portion consists 
of devotional and dogmatic works 
collected from the convents and 
monasteries on their suppression, 
numbering about two hundred 
thousand volumes. There are 
many very precious tomes in this 
library, unique specimens of price- 
less value, dating from early in the 
fourteenth century, and some Mex- 
icans pinturas done in deerskin by 
Montezuma as dispatches to his 
allies at the time of the invasion. 
Curios in literature are of deep 

interest to the lover of antique songs. Modern books on every subject make the 
National Library one of the valuable and interesting depositories of the world. 

Besides this great library there are several others containing works of special 
interest to publicists and students — as those of the government departments, 
the National Museum, the Fine Arts Academy, the School of Engineering, the 
Law School, and the library at the National Palace. 




STAIRCASE, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS. 



264 



MEXICO 



Higher education has its protection and many schools for the development 
of talent are found in Mexico. Besides a school for thought which comprises 
advanced ideas, Mexico is very proud of her Escuela Nacional de Artes y 
Oficios. It was established to give women and girls an opportunity to gain 
a profession that could give them a livelihood or fit them for the serious 
duties of life. In this school are taught all the branches of work, nursing, 
elementary learning, photography, upholstery, lace-making and in fact every- 
thing that the trained hand can do. This school has elevated the humble 
class to a condition of self respect, and the women who have had advantage 

of this training have been 
able to earn a good living, 
and liberal remuneration 
for their work and some 
have been known to estab- 
lish little shops which have 
grown into good commercial 
standing. This institution is 
one of the great safeguards 
to women, who are protected 
by a feeling of independence 
and self-confidence. It is 
under the direction of the 
Government and the ladies 
of the highest society of 
Mexico, who do everything 
for the advancement of this 
class of women. The best 
teachers are employed, many 
of them having been sent 
abroad to make studies of 
schools of this kind. 

Realizing that many of 

the students were too poor to 

have proper food and nourishment, the influence of Madame Sierra, wife of 

the Minister of Education, and Madame Luz Cosio de Lopez, daughter of the 




NATIONAL PREPARATORY SCHOOL. 



EDUCATION 



265 



Minister of War, resulted in plans to give them free meals, and the good nour- 
ishment given these girls, whose lots in life are not too easy, is one of the 
aides to the great success of the institution. 




i 



COMMERCIAL SCHOOL. 



There are several English and American schools, among them the Sarah 
L. Keen College. 

It will be appreciated that the educational system has its practical as well as 
its aesthetic side. A fair amount of intelligence and a willingness to profit by 
the experience of other countries are the keynotes of educational propaganda. 
The many agricultural colleges throughout the country are modeled after those 
of Canada, where the idea of such schools was first worked out. From Germany 
the scheme of manual and industrial training was borrowed, while from the 
United States came the plans for the mining and applied science colleges. Al- 
ready the beneficial effects of the training given are being noted ; better farming, 
more economical mining, more skill in weaving, in dyeing, in metal working and 
thrifty housekeeping. The newly organized Federal Department of Public 
Instruction is zealously directed by the Secretary, Lie. Don Justo Sierra, ably 
assisted by the Sub-Secretary, Lie. Don Ezequiel Chavez. "Co-operating" is the 
federation of education : a convention of educators which meets from time to time 
makes practical recommendations for improvement wherever such should and 



266 



MEXICO 



can be undertaken. In another generation there will be no illiteracy among the 
Mexicans, a condition of which no European country can boast. Irresistibly, 
the mark of progress goes on, welding the races into one people. One man's 
life, that of Porfirio Diaz, spans the whole improvement; and its inspiration is 
his, although the working out of the plans for betterment has been in the capable 
direction of his ministers supported by the whole-hearted efforts of an awakened 
people. 




SAN CARLOS ACADEMY. 




STREET SCENE, TOLUCA. 



CHAPTER XIV 



MEXICO 



IT would require many years of study to present an adequate idea of the 
progress and enterprise that exist in the republic, and each state has con- 
tributed its share toward the rapid advancement that has marked the conditions 
within the past fifteen years. 

The State of Mexico is one of the most important in the republic. It is 
rich in mineral resources and picturesque in scenery. The people of this state 
are active and ambitious. 

Many extensive tracts of territory have been shorn from the empire which 

was granted to Cortes as his reward for the conquest. Two other whole states, 

Hidalgo and Morelos, were created out of Mexico and Guerrero and the Federal 

District have also had parts of this state added to them. Nearly ten thousand 

square miles are left, and upon this territory live more than a million industrious 

269 



270 MEXICO 

people, many of whom are of Indian descent. For purposes of government it is 
divided into fifteen districts but Nature has divided the state by means of mount- 
ain ranges into three almost distinct territories. The Valley of Mexico, which 
extends into the Federal District is paralleled to the west by the Valley of Toluca, 
in which the capital of the state, bearing the same name, is situated. The third 
district comprises the slope southwest of the main range toward the lowlands 
of Guerrero. 

The soft named and beautiful capital of this interesting state nestles at the 
foot of snow-crowned mountains, one of them the extinct volcano from which 
it is named, whose peak looks silently down with the calm of centuries upon this 
city of restless progress, as the still ages might look down upon the on-rushing 
to-day. Her wide and well-paved streets, her spacious plazas and shaded 
squares, the imposing buildings, some gray with centuries, some new with the 
modern spirit of the day, combined with the delightful situation and the grandeur 
of the surrounding scenery, make the city one of surpassing interest and beauty. 
Modern institutions devoted to education, progress, charity and humanity have 
given Toluco the well-deserved reputation of being one of the finest and best 
governed cities. 

In the Valley of Mexico, which averages throughout the state the same alti- 
tude as Mexico City, the principal pursuits are farming, cattle raising, and manu- 
facturing. The numerous small towns are reached by branches of the national 
railroad system. Equally well provided with transportation facilities are the 
towns in the Toluca Valley. The average altitude here is above eight thousand 
feet, a thousand higher than the Valley of Mexico, and the temperature is pro- 
portionally lower. The air is wonderfully pure and the sanitary conditions 
exceptionally good. 

Toluca is only forty-five miles from Mexico City but, owing to the intervening 
mountains, the journey occupies three hours. Here, almost at the base of an 
extinct volcano, called the "White Mountain" by the Spaniards, Cortes set up 
the headquarters of his seigniory. The city to-day is one of the most pleasing 
in Mexico, with a large and intelligent population and contains many buildings of 
interest. It is built on both banks of the Xicualtenco River which is parallel to 
the main thoroughfares. The streets are for the most part straight and are always 
kept clean. The public squares and gardens are adorned with fine monuments. 
There are many delightful spots and interesting places found throughout the 



MEXICO 



271 



State of Mexico. Lofty peaks and deep barrancas, broad meadows and narrow 
vales, inaccessible height and cultivated fields succeed one another in delightful 
variety. The beauty of the 
scenery is indescribable, now 
and then through the arched 
forest trees the snowy volca- 
noes with their distant domes 
and the silvery lakes of the 
Valley of Mexico greet the 
vision. 

The ruins of an old Car- 
melite Convent standing on 
the slope of a hill are sur- 
rounded by noble forests of 
pine and oak and cedar — long 
and lofty forest-aisles, where 
the monks of former days 
wandered in peaceful medita- 
tion. Some poor Indians live 
among the ruins and possess 
the undisputed sovereignty of 
the woods. It is said that a 
benighted traveler who had 
lost his way in these solitudes 
and was miraculously saved 
from dying of cold, founded 
this rich convent of Carmelite 
Monks, in gratitude for his 

deliverance, expressing his desire that all travelers that passed that way should 
receive hospitality from the convent. Certainly no place more fitted for devo- 
tion could have been selected than this mountain retreat. 

The way to Lerma is through a massive stone gateway from which the 
gates were removed long ago. The streets are broad but straggling, the houses 
comfortable rather than grand or even elegant and the many eucalyptus 
trees planted around the picturesque adobe and stone church date back to 




GENERAL FERNANDO GONZALEZ. 



272 



MEXICO 



the time of Maximilian. Across the way from the church is an old grave- 
yard which is indisputably ancient, as the graves of the Spanish conquerors, 
nine in number, are marked with limestone slabs dated over four centuries ago. 
It is a custom among the Mexican Indians to sell pebbles from these graves 
to tourists who are always eager to carry away souvenirs from a spot of histor- 
ical renown. 

High in mid-air the climate of the State of Mexico leaves nothing to be 
desired by those to whom pure air without clean cutting winds, bright sun that 
does not scorch, and abundance of pure water melted from the eternal glistening 
snows, are indispensable. It is such that brings contentment and peace the year 
around, without undue lassitude at any time. I ts variety permits the production 
of all classes of crops; wheat, Indian corn, and other cereals grow in abundant 




GOVERNOR'S PALACE. 



harvests in the valleys of Toluca, Iztlahuaca, Tenango, and Tezcoco, while sugar 
cane, coffee, and other tropical products grow in the districts of Temascaltepec, 



MEXICO 



273 



Tenancingo and other southern districts. The forest products are remarkable 
for their diversity and richness. 

The raising of cattle is one of the principal resources of this state, and is 
increasing rapidly each year. The annual product is exceedingly great, but 
pastoral life is giving way to more 
modern methods of existence. The 
railroads going through these vast 
plains around and among these 
lofty mountains are doing away with 
the primitive conditions that have 
existed. 

Toluca, the capital of the State, 
is united to Mexico City by the 
Mexican National Railway which 
traverses a most picturesque route 
all the way to San Luis Potosi. All 
the railways which centre in the 
metropolis cross the state giving it 
ready exportations for all its prod- 
ucts. The Mexican National route 
also gives communication northward 
with the rest of the world. 

Practically all of the towns in the 
two valleys are lighted by electricity 

generated from hydraulic sources. In Tenancingo is the plant of the Toluca 
Electric Light and Power Company, which furnishes light and power to the home 
town, to Tenango, Calimaya, Tienguistenco and Toluca. In Tenancingo a 
local stream runs the big cotton spinning and weaving plant of La Guadalupe. 
In Sultepec water runs the smelter of La Concepcion, lights a district, supplies 
power to the mines and other reduction plants and has five hundred horse-power 
for the machinery of the Toluca Brewery. Mills at Calimaya, San Ildefonso 
and numerous other points making cotton cloth, woollen goods and paper all 
get their power from similar sources. Besides having plenty of water power, 
an abundance of labor, fertile farms and pastures, the two valleys are also rich 
in mineral wealth. Some of the most beautiful marble found in the world is 




MONUMENT TO COLUMBUS 



274 



MEXICO 



quarried here and the mining industry is very much developed. There are mines 
producing gold, silver, lead and quicksilver,. The best known of these are El 
Oro and Esperanza, whose British and American owners are quite frank in making 
their gains public. 

In the Sultepec district is another great producer, " La Quimica, " owned by 
Germans who are more reticent but who are known to ship a great amount of 
bullion. Besides these there is a host of minor shipping mines and the possibilities 
of a great range of country which has not been thoroughly prospected, notwith- 
standing the fact that the mines of this state have been worked for hundreds of 

years. Many of the mines 
now yielding rich ores are 
those once worked by primi- 
tive processes and were de- 
serted because they were 
thought not to be worth the 
trouble. Modern crushing 
machinery, smelters, and 
chemical reduction works 
find a rich profit in these 
mines. 

In the mines of Temas- 
caltepec and Zacualpam, as 
in those of Oro, the profits 
are large; gold, silver, lead, 
iron, and copper being ob- 
tained in large quantities. 
The supply of sulphur from 
the great snow-capped 
mountain, Popocatepetl, is 
enormous. There is in this 
district coal of excellent 
quality and zinc is found in 
the form of blendes, accom- 
panied by silver ore. The mining activity in this state is increasing every year, 
theTejupilco district is being steadily developed and the Sultepec district, eighty 




MUNICIPAL PALACE. 



MEXICO 



275 



kilometres southwest from Toluca is the centre of an extensive metalliferous zone 
running from Angangueo to Taxco, both famous mining camps. There are many 
veins in exploitation though some of them remain to be worked. Among these 
are: El Cobre. Maravil- 
las, Laura, La Providencia, 
Alejo, La Soledad, San Luis 
and others. In all these it 
is observed that the rich- 
ness of the vein gives great 
promise although the pros- 
pectors are very reticent 
concerning their yieldings. 

Besides having the 
mineral wealth itself, this 
state also is particularly 
well provided with the 
means of uncovering its 
buried riches. There is an 
abundance of lumber for 
timbering shafts, of water 
power to run hoisting and 
crushing machinery, and of 
the most docile labor, which 
is still cheap, though the 
competition of mills is 
gradually raising the scale 
of compensation. 

The third great natural section of the state drops in terraces in the south- 
west from an altitude of a mile and a half almost to sea level. On the upper 
ranges, as in the valleys of Toluca and Mexico, the crops are those of the temper- 
ate zone, corn predominating, and there is also much cattle raising. As the 
slopes fall, however, the natural products verge into the tropical: sugar, coffee, 
cotton, rubber and the citrous fruits abound. 

The Indian population of the state is a peaceful, law abiding people under- 
standing and speaking Spanish and having entirely forgotten their primitive 




TEMPLE OF VERA CRUZ, TOLUCA. 



276 



MEXICO 



tongues. They do not mix in political matters but manifest a great interest 
in education, for which reason the governor of the state has insisted on plenty 
of schools being built in the districts, to which these Indians, in most cases, gladly 
contribute their personal labor. 

Toluca lies in the centre of the fertile plains west of the Sierra Madre. It is 
one of the cleanest cities in the country. The citizens are intelligent and well 
educated and their school system is of the highest standard. There is a splendid 
Girls' and Boys' Normal School of Arts and Trades, largely for the purpose of 
elevating the ignorant and inferior classes. In this school are many of the 
Mazahuatl, Otoli, and Aztec indigenes, whose ambition is to become teachers 
in their respective villages. 

The literary institute of Toluca has been reorganized as the Scientific and 
Literary Institute of the State of Mexico. Public charities are also well organized. 




LEGISLATIVE PALACE, TOLUCA. 



There is a general hospital in the city and local hospitals in each of the cities of 
Sultepec, Jilotepec, Tlalnepantla, Tezcoco, Valle de Bravo and all the small 



MEXICO 



277 



villages and mining districts. There are asylums for boys and girls and educa- 
tion is compulsory. 

The penitentiary is a spacious and sanitary institution where all the machin- 
ery is run by steam power and the establishment lighted by electricity. The 
object of this institution is the 
reformation of the criminal and 
the abolition of the death pen- 
alty. Humanitarian ideas are 
evident at all stages of one's 
progress through this model 
prison. Each prisoner has his 
hour for instruction and the 
classes run from primary to the 
higher standard according to 
the knowledge of the prisoner, 
and by this system he is able 
to earn an honest livelihood by 
handicraft when he is liberated. 

Industrially the city is 
very well advanced. There 
are woollen mills which pro- 
duce handsome cloths. In this 
country industry has made 
such rapid strides that it is 
fast becoming a manufacturing 
centre. Most of the factories 
of the state are located near water powers, notably in the capital is the site of 
one of the largest breweries in Mexico. 

Most of the public buildings are of comparatively recent construction. 
The Palace of the Government, though it occupies the site of one built by 
Martin Cortes, son of the Conqueror, was not erected till 1872. It faces the 
Garden of the Martyrs. In its main hall is a collection of portraits of the early 
Governors -of the State. The public offices are elegant and commodious and the 
reception room is magnificent in every detail. Other handsome buildings are 
the City Hall, the Maternity Hospital, Schools of Law, School of Arts and 




PALACE OF JUSTICE. 



278 



MEXICO 



Crafts, and the Normal School, all of which are modern and beautifully con- 
structed. The Public Library, containing many thousands of volumes, is also 
rich in original manuscript archives, and is much consulted by historians of the 
earlier periods of Mexico. The public market is of late construction and is one 
of the finest and most sanitary in the republic. Here all classes of goods are 
sold, from the products of the country, pottery and meats to the cloth that is 
woven in the mills, and the most picturesque sight that one can imagine is the 
Indians in their native costumes squatting in the market square, offering their 
goods. It is here that one sees the people face to face in their native dress, and 
receives valuable impressions of their customs and the products of the country. 
The Parochial Church dates back to the days of the Conquest. It was 
restored and enlarged in 1585. There are a number of other old churches, some 




INDEPENDENCE AVENUE, TOLUCA. 



of very large size, all noted for their beautiful paintings, their altars, and rich 
tapestries, one of which has a famous chime of bells and a very large organ. 



MEXICO 



270 



The public monuments are very notable. There are two of Hidalgo, one of 
Columbus and many others. In almost every park there are evidences of 




SCHOOL OF LAW. 



patriotic feeling, either a fountain dedicated to some hero or a tablet inscribed 
to the Martyrs of the War of Independence. 

The beautiful alameda, the rendezvous for the elite of the city on fete days 
and on Sundays is one of the most perfect parks in the republic. It is the result 
of the strenuous efforts of all the public officials to make the State of Mexico 
famous for its advancement and improvement. In this beautiful display of 
verdure, drive, and lakelets, worthy features have been added to the well-known 
beauty of Toluca. Entering this lovely park by wide arched gateways one is 
confronted by a masterpiece of art and industry. Swans gliding in the waters 
of the lakes curve their long necks to greet the visitor; deer already tamed by 
young children come forward sniffing a glad welcome, and on days of fiesta 
gather lovely sehoritas, clad in delicate gowns, gay parasols, colors, everything 
pertaining to gladness and beauty. There one has the opportunity of studying 
a phase of life among the young folks in this vast country of beautiful customs. 



280 



MEXICO 



The women of this country are gentle, beautiful, tender, loving mothers, gracious 
and gifted, devoted to their husbands, and make their home-life all that is to 
be desired. 

In 1519, Cortes found the people of Toluca the most prosperous and ad- 
vanced of the subjects of Montezuma. From the deposits of precious stones in 
Toluca the Spanish had a splendid revenue and the mountain sides yielded 
emeralds, sapphires and garnets for the markets of Europe. Near the city may be 
seen the stone foundations laid for the structure of a home which the Conqueror 
began for the comfort of his old and wounded soldiers. This plan was not 
carried further on account of the changes in the fortune of this ambitious man. 
There is a splendid automobile road which leads from Mexico City to Toluca 
and it is very popular on account of the beautiful scenery. Many tourists find 
this a pleasing trip to make. Leaving the capital, one passes Chapultepec and 




NORMAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. 



all the outlying villages of the Valley of Mexico. Old temples rise majestically 
before the traveler and the swift ride up the Sierra Madre over canons on the 



MEXICO 



281 



mountain crest looking down hundreds of feet into the valleys one has a vision 
of Toluca that can hardly be described. In going there from Mexico City, 
the way leads down the 
beautiful Paseo de la 
Reforma and takes one 
through Tacubaya and 
over a great mountain 
wall. The climbing be- 
gins to get very steep 
especially after leaving 
the pine belt. The fir 
trees in this region re- 
semble the hemlock 
spruce but have a dif- 
ferent arrangement of 
the needles. Polypo- 
dium ferns grow in tufts 
on every hand and car- 
dinal flowers abound. 
Scarlet and blue tana- 
gers fly about every- 
where. There are also 
sparrow hawks even 
more beautiful in plum- 
age; doves unusually 
brilliant in color and 
parrots of every hue and 

variety. On the crest of the mountain that divides the country of the Tolucans 
from the City of Mexico the character of the vegetation suddenly and marvelously 
changes. Here in the same altitude, but facing a warmer sun and milder winds, 
are forests of tropical trees. Mahogany and tangerine orange trees are seen and 
the ground is green with the grazing plant known as alfilerea. Half way down 
the mountain range is a wide plateau, and about half a mile from it, is the his- 
toric field, Las Cruces. The spot is marked by an obelisk, about thirty feet high 
made of limestone set upon a heavy foundation of concrete. This is the scene of 




MATERNITY HOSPITAL. 



282 



MEXICO 



the first real victory of the Mexicans over the Spaniards in the war of 1810. It 
was here that the great patriot Hidalgo with his band of followers drove back the 
royalist troops with heavy loss. It was this great victory that gave the Mexicans 
self-confidence and proved to them that they might, under proper conditions, 
defeat the well-trained and completely armed soldiers of the Spanish viceroys. 

On the same plateau is the old town of Las Cruces. The population is 
very small and its livelihood is derived entirely from the sale of toys, silver 
filigree work and beautifully polished woods of the mountain forests. Leaving 
Las Cruces the soil becomes well-watered and very fertile. Hundreds of farmers 
at their work in their fields of alfalfa, barley and maguey, and laborers in or- 
chards of olives, prunes and native fruits, give life to the country. The peak of 
Toluca is more than sixteen thousand feet high but is not snow covered. There 
is an extensive snow field on its summit but this is hidden from view. The 
wind blows fine jets from the hidden snow field and this gives the mountain the 
appearance of smoking. In the early days of Montezuma the Aztecs regarded 
Toluca as having a supernatural power and many stories told of spirits hover- 
ing over the people lend attractive legends to the folklore. On the plains, the 

Lerma River, which is one 
of the great waters of Mex- 
ico, flows like a ribbon of 
silver toward LakeChapala, 
from this it runs north and 
taking the name of Rio 
Grande de Santiago rolls on- 
ward to the Pacific Ocean, 
into which it flows near San 
Bias. The City of Lerma 
is on the rocky eminence, 
and the bell tower and dome 
of its famous church are very 
conspicuous, gleaming in the 
air. The whole plain rises 
gently from the marsh land at the foot of the hills and sweeps up to the base of 
the great mountain range of which the peak of Toluca is the culmination. Far as 
the eye can reach the soil is cultivated and gives evidence of lavish care. The 





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EMPLE OI- MERCED. 



MEXICO 



283 



variegated coloring of the fields planted in different varieties of grains, gives it 
the appearance of a mammoth checker-board. Everywhere are big villages or 
imposing haciendas. One of these, perched upon the last slope of the hillside, 
might have been taken bod- 
ily from one of the Italian 
cantons of Switzerland. 

In the outskirts of 
Toluca are two elaborate 
shrines where, often, one 
may see a group of farmers 
and laborers who have stop- 
ped on their way home to 
offer prayer. This is not 
confined to the class of In- 
dians, for often a rich ha- 
ciendado is seen passing on 
his horse to oversee his 
workmen, stopping there, 
too, to offer his prayers of 
thanksgiving. 

The little village of 
Otumba, about thirty miles 
from Mexico, was the scene 
of one of Cortes's greatest 

battles. Chalco is a little Indian town, and has great historical value. The Chal- 
cas were a determined enemy of the Aztecs, and only after struggles, in which they 
were notably brave and daring, were they defeated by the combined forces of the 
armies of Mexico and Atzcapotzalco. They afterward became a part of the Aztec 
confederacy. The land of Chalco is one of the most productive parts of Mexico, as 
what was once a great lake is now the most fertile land that exists in the valley. 

The Governor of the State, Brigadier-general Fernando Gonzalez, is the son 
of an illustrious father, Manuel Gonzalez, who is known to history as one of the 
great presidents of Mexico. Governor Gonzalez has a brilliant record of thirty- 
two years of splendid service to his country, and the people of the State of Mexico, 
recognize in him an able and enthusiastic ruler. He is progressive, strong and 




STATE BANK. 



284 



MEXICO 



able to handle affairs pertaining to the welfare of his State, and universal satis- 
faction is felt at his continuing in office a second term. No governor has ever 
had the ovation he received on the occasion of his re-election. Under his admin- 
istration the State has greatly prospered and he maintains the strictest disci- 
pline among the rural guards, causes the roads to be kept in repair, and has 
greatly advanced the public school system in efficiency. The rural schools and 
those in the mining districts are the objects of his great interest and the repu- 
tation that this State enjoys for a splendid school system has been the result of 
the indefatigable labors of this distinguished man. 

During the feast of the Centennial, the State of Mexico entered into the spirit 
of the celebration with great enthusiasm, entertainments being most brilliant. 

The State of Mexico has earned her laurels as a well governed progressive 
State, probably as much as any State in the Union for she is better supplied with 
good roads, splendid railway communications, good service of telegraph and tele- 
phone lines, while the postal system is said to be the best regulated in the republic. 

1 1 is not difficult to understand why the State of Mexico is considered the most 
prosperous in the republic. It is one of the fertile States and occupies one of the 
most beautiful positions that can be seen in any part of the world. Nature is seen 
in almost all her phases; forest, green fields, snow-covered volcanoes, fertile lands 
and flowing rivers. What more superb setting can be found for so fair a jewel ! 




GENERAL HOSPITAL. 




MUNICIPAL PALACE. 




RESIDENCE OF GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ. 



CHAPTER XV 



PUEBLA 



IT is not mere acreage or population, nor public institutions or monuments of 
any kind, however imposing, historic, or beautiful, that constitute a state. 1 1 
is the men of thought and action who have brought Mexico from under the yoke 
of the Spaniard, who in three hundred years wrung so much treasure from a suf- 
fering people, and made of the down-trodden province a free and independent 
country among the nations of the globe. 

The State of Puebla is eminent in the annals of the Republic, alike for the 
great resources it has yielded from the time of the Conquest and its participa- 
tion in the history-making of the nation and not less so for the distinction 
gained by its people. Puebla is the capital city; it was founded soon after the 

Conquest by Cortes, and at that time was one of the social centres. Its location 

287 



288 



MEXICO 



near the Federal capital has brought the city into intimate acquaintance with 
the affairs of the world. It is finely laid out, with every modern improvement, 
and is exceedingly picturesque with alamedas and public squares. Its ancient 
palaces have been turned into offices for the chief officials. It is considered one 
of the most attractive cities in the republic. The people are noted for their 
refinement and culture, having many splendid public institutions of learning. 

There are over sixty churches and 
theological schools, charity schools, 
hospitals and benevolent establish- 
ments. It is one of the oldest cities 
in America, founded in 1531, and is 
considered, next to the Federal Dis- 
trict, the most important. It is the 
cradle of manufacturing industry in 
Mexico, being one of the first to 
establish spinning and weaving fac- 
tories. In addition to being an in- 
dustrial centre, Puebla is connected 
with all parts of the republic by rail- 
roads which traverse the rich district 
of sugar plantations and other indus- 
trial centres. The climate is delight- 
fully mild and agreeable and the 
country around is green with fertile 
fields. The view of the great volcano 
of Popocatepetl, seen at sunrise, is 
unrivalled. The snowy top and sides 
stand out like a great dome of ala- 
baster and then the sun, rising higher 
and higher, from the radiant brow 
sheds its glory on all below. Puebla 
is a beautiful city with handsome 
houses built in the finest style of 
architecture, with broad and remark- 
ably clean streets and avenues. It 




MONUMENT TO NICOLAS BRAVO 



PUEBLA 



289 



has a population of more than a hundred thousand; is the seat of an arch- 
bishop; and its historical associations make it exceedingly interesting. Some 
of the buildings are relics of the 
days of the viceroys. The architec- 
ture, distinguished by its Spanish 
influence, is very picturesque, with 
its multi-colored tiles of Talavera, 
for which the city was famous. This 
pottery ware was manufactured in 
this city in the seventeenth century 
and some of the wonderful relics are 
still found, though very seldom. 

The character of the citizens is 
marked by conventionality, con- 
servatism being the keynote to 
everything in which they partici- 
pate. The influence of the Catholic 
church prevails and one is often im- 
pressed at the sight of the people, 
from the poorest to the highest in 
society, kissing the hand of the arch- 
bishop or kneeling as the angelus is 
rung. From a military point of 

view, Puebla is considered the key to the national capital and during several 
foreign wars suffered many vicissitudes. Its history is very interesting, although 
a stormy one, and it has suffered more, perhaps, in the cause of war than any city 
in the republic. Augustin Iturbide, who proclaimed himself Emperor of Mexico, 
captured the city in August, 1821. In 1847, it was occupied by the United States 
forces. In 1862, it was the scene of Zaragoza's victory. It was occupied by 
the French in 1863, and on April 2, 1867, General Porfirio Diaz gained the 
most notable victory of his military career by driving out the French. In spite 
of the ravages of warfare and some of the relics of the war that exist, the city 
of Puebla still retains its beauty of former days embellished by the art of 
modern architecture. One of the most magnificent edifices in the world is the 
Cathedral. It is noble and inspiring. A pretty legend regarding the rapid 




GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ. 



290 



MEXICO 



progress of the building tells us that it was owing to the assistance of two angels, 
who descended nightly and added to its height, so that each morning the aston- 
ished workmen found their labor incredibly advanced. From this legend 
Puebla derives its name, "The City of the Angels." This beautiful church is 
elegant and simple, and in excellent taste. The floor is of colored marble; the 
rich and artistically attractive high altar, of different varieties of Puebla onyx; 
and the beautiful iron work and wood carving about the choir make an interior 
which equals that of the Cathedrals of the old world. A great amount of wealth 

exists in Puebla, principally in con- 
nection with its churches, some of 
which are three hundred years old. 
Other churches which claim 
attention are those of San Cris- 
tobal, founded in 1532, and rebuilt 
in 1667; San Jose, the Templo de 
la Compania, San Marcos, Nuestra 
Sehora de la Soledad and Santa 
Catarina. In the interior of all 
these one finds a collection of 
paintings and beautiful carvings. 
The general effect is bewildering. 
In all these churches, silver rail- 
ings, candelabra and rich tapes- 
tries are found and the domes and 
steeples of glazed Talavera tiles 
make the city flash in the sun. 

During the celebration of the 
Centennial, schools and public in- 
stitutions were dedicated and the 
city was festive with entertain- 
ments of all kinds. The venerable 
Marques de Polavieja was the guest 
of the government, and was given the freedom of the city. Puebla probably 
had more reason to celebrate the Centenary than any other city as it was the 
centre of all the historical events of the Spanish period. 




STATUE OF GENERAL ZARAGOZA. 



PUEBLA 



201 



Music and opera have a charm for the Mexicans, and Puebla is a musical 
centre. There are some good theatres and one of the largest bull rings in the 
republic is here. Hundreds of people swarm into the city from other towns and 




STATE COLLEGE, 



nearby villages to witness a bull-fight and on the occasion of this performance 
everyone makes it a gala holiday. 

The oldest theatre in America is the Teatro Principal, which was inaugu- 
rated in 1760, by the Viceroy Ahumada. It was known in those days as the 
"Teatro de los Arrieros, " being the favorite amusement place of the mule drivers 
who came in from the country on feast days. For a while it was patronized by 
the best class of society, but is now given over to a cinematograph. The 
interior was completely destroyed by fire a few years ago. This old theatre is 
unusually interesting on account of its early Spanish architecture. 

The Guerrero Theatre was built in 1868, and stands on the site of the old city 
prison. It is owned by the city and has been greatly improved with modern 
scenery and stage fittings. Visitors are attracted to this theatre on account of 
its beauty of proportion and its artistic decoration. 



292 



MEXICO 



The principal buildings of the city are imposing gray stone structures with 
an atmosphere of the historical past surrounding them. The more modern ones 
are built on the most approved plan. The penitentiary is one of the most 
modern and sanitary prisons existing in the republic. It is built on the general 
plan that characterizes all these institutions and merits great attention. The 
Casa de Maternidad is one of the splendid institutions that stamp the Mexican 
nation as the most charitable in the world. Here, without a question being 
asked, a poor unfortunate woman may find a haven of refuge. 

The Municipal Palace 
is a modern structure. It is 
situated opposite the Cath- 
edral and is built in the 
Spanish Renaissance style, 
and occupies the site of the 
original palace, which was 
erected in 1536. A fine 
salon on the second floor is 
of the French Renaissance, 
with allegorical paintings 
on the ceiling, done by na- 
tive artists. The Govern- 
ment Library is in the 
palace and comprises a 
large collection of books. 
The entrance to this re- 
markable chamber is inspir- 
ing in the greatest degree. 
1 1 is noted for its marvellous 
carvings. The reception 
rooms of the officials are 
exceedingly imposing and 
the military atmosphere 
lends color to the scene. 
The bronze equestrian statue of General Ignacio Zaragoza was erected by 
the State of Puebla in 1896. This is a most imposing monument. At the base 




CATHEDRAL. 



PUEBL/t 



293 



of the pedestal appear the names of the generals who aided this great soldier in 
his expulsion of the French troops during their intervention. The Paseo Nuevo 




LA MATERNIDAD, PUEBLA. 



is a splendid avenue, which is the pride of the Pueblans. One of its attractions 
is a handsome bronze group of statuary erected to the memory of the heroes of 
the war for Independence by the State of Puebla. Other statues on the Paseo 
are those of Gabino Barreda and Esteban de Antuhano, founder of the cotton 
industry. At the south end of the Paseo is an imposing monument erected to 
General Nicolas Bravo, who was one of the heroes of the war and was one of the 
members of the Council of Notables which promulgated the new constitution for 
Mexico. He was president of Mexico for a short time in 1846. 

In one of the squares is the beautiful fountain of San Miguel, constructed in 
1777. 

The State College is also an imposing edifice and is a well-conducted 
institution. Among the other public buildings the Library containing about 
fifty thousand volumes, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Normal School, and 



294 



MEXICO 



several hospitals all go toward demonstrating the great progress and advance- 
ment of the people. 

General Mucio P. Martinez, Governor of the State, is one of the most dis- 
tinguished soldiers in the republic. His name is enrolled among the other great 
leaders of warfare. He is the hero of a hundred battles and has been the trusted 
friend and companion of General Diaz for many years. He entered the army 
when a young boy in 1861, and displayed such great bravery in many actions that 
in 1863 he was assigned to the cavalry and promoted to the ran-k of lieutenant. 
He has fought in all the wars that have taken place in his country since he enlisted 

and his services have been of such 
great value to his country that the 
grade of brigadier-general was con- 
ferred on him in 1884, which is his 
rank at the present time. He has 
been the Governor of Puebla since 
1892, and has done so much to en- 
courage all enterprise and progress 
in his state that he has the repu- 
tation of being one of the wisest 
and most intelligent administra- 
tors. The Governor has taken 
special interest in the public school 
system, and through his efforts it 
is supposed to be the best regu- 
lated in the republic. There are 
a number of institutions of higher 
education, preparatory schools, 
schools of law and medicine, and 
a most efficient school of engin- 
eering. Manual trades are taught 
and even in the penitentiary the 
prisoners have the benefit of a 
good common education. 
The Governor is noted for his charming personality, his kindness of heart, 
and his protection for all enterprises that are worthy of the attention of an official 




MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE, PUEBLA. 



PUEBL-i 



295 




RIM OF THE CRATER OF POPOCATEPETL. 



who is interested in the welfare of his state. He has surrounded himself with 
intelligent progressive gentlemen as State officials, and through their enterprising 
and intelligent administra- 
tion, Puebla has been raised 
to the rank of second state 
in importance in the repub- 
lic. Licenciado Augustin 
Fernandez, the Secretary of 
State, is an important factor 
in its government; he is a 
scientist and linguist and a 
man of great ability. 

Industry is animated 
in various branches and is 
being actively developed, 
particularly the textile 

manufactures; and the products of the numerous and well-equipped mills for 
weaving and spinning cotton and wool, scattered through the State, rival the 
foreign products, for their variety and excellence. Commerce is very active and 
the culmination of its operation is guaranteed by the complete abolition of duties, 
as there are no more domestic custom houses. Merchandise circulates freely 
through the state, and the industrial establishments and mercantile houses are 
subject only to the payment of taxes, which have been advantageously substi- 
tuted for the odious system of excise. The hotels in Puebla are particularly 
good. They are thronged with visitors from all parts of Mexico, attracted by 
the beautiful climate and noted sulphur baths that are in the suburbs. Some 
of these waters are boiling as they bubble from the ground and the odor can be 
detected quite a long distance away. 

In this state the onyx, famous all over the world, is quarried, near Puebla, 
and exquisite specimens are seen in some of the public buildings. 

Few tropical localities in Mexico equal the privileged section of Northern 
Puebla. Here nature has lavished its profusion ungrudgingly, and for the man 
of energy, success and prosperity are assured. The natural products are many 
and diversified. Building woods and those suitable for making furniture exist 
mostly in dense forests, while dye-woods and a species of wild indigo abound. 



296 



MEXICO 



Various fibres suitable for the manufacture of brooms and brushes as well as 
those for ropes, etc., clothe forest, meadow and hill. There is plenty of wild 
game and large quantities of fish are found in the limpid streams. Along the 
western section long stretches of natural grass well-adapted for pasture and stock- 
raising bring very satisfactory results. The cultivated products are coffee, corn, 
sugar cane, tobacco, pineapple, banana and rubber. Corn yields here four hun- 
dred bushels for one; cane produces without irrigation. Rubber and coffee yield 
to the industrious planter a rich reward for his enterprise. The climate is very 

acceptable for farming; fruit grow- 
ing, especially the tropical prod- 
ucts, is a profitable occupation. 
Bee culture, in connection with 
vanilla, is now a source of wealth. 
The district of Atzlan lies at the 
base of the Sierra Madre Range in 
the State of Puebla and comprises 
the extreme north end of the rich 
and fertile country of Huachi- 
nango. It is located at a distance 
of eighty miles south of the port of 
Tuxpan and one hundred and forty 
miles northeast of Mexico. This 
district takes in an area of over one 
hundred and sixty square miles of 
the most excellent tropical land. 
A large English-speaking colony 
has settled in this district. The 
soil is a rich dark loam finely 
adapted for the cultivation of 
every vegetable, fruit and fibre and 
capable of yielding prolific prod- 
ucts. The temperature in summer, 
though high at mid-day, is low in the mornings and evenings and the winter 
months are generally delightful. The lands are undulating slopes abounding 
with fine forests and inviting streams while the well-drained plains are covered 




AN OLD CHURCH DOOR. 



PUEBLA 297 

with perennial grass. Every section of these lands is of easy access. The Ward 
Line steamers call at Tuxpan from Vera Cruz or Tampico every week and the 
Mexican mail boats every few days. The Valley of Atlixco is noted for its fertility 
and its abundant crops of vegetables as well as for the fineness of its fruit. 

The Metlaltoyuca colonization lands, which lie along the Gulf slope on the 
Mesa de los Coroneles, are quite important. The journey there from Mexico City 
is most interesting, leading across a deep chasm and beautiful valleys. Sometimes 
a road clings to the shoulder of the great mountain ; sometimes it rushes suddenly 
into a lovely valley carpeted with Mexican flowers or gay with ruby coffee or tas- 
selled corn. Wide fields of grain and banana spread for miles along the sides of 
the road, leading to the colony lands. Here and there are great forests of cedar, 
mahogany and rubber trees, interlaced with rich tropical foliage and parasites. 
Bright winged birds and orchids of wonderful color light up the recesses of the 
forests, and groves of luscious oranges and lemons perfume the air. Shortly before 
the road reaches the outskirts of the Metlaltoyuca lands it crosses the Pantepec 
River, swiftly making its way to the Gulf. The crystal waters reveal a pebbly 
bottom about sixty feet wide; and the entire stream forms one of the most 
beautiful rivers in Mexico. 

The prospects of this colony, composed of English-speaking people, are very 
promising. Extensive fields of grain may be seen here; the warm moist climate 
being particularly adapted to the raising of cereals. Nature has been lavish in 
gifts to this region; the climate is mild; the thermometer seldom going above 
eighty in the day time, while the nights are cool. The houses are of bamboo 
and comfortable. Some of them have rosewood floors, and little gardens around 
them make the region homelike and pleasant. In this small village of a few 
hundred inhabitants there is a spirit of association and friendship. 

The warm springs of Cuautla are reached by the Interoceanic Railroad. 
Surrounding this resort are mountains perpetually white, yet no snow ever falls 
on this tropical town. The arrival here is full of greatest interest, as the train 
pulls into the oldest railroad station in the world. It was built in 1657, and was 
formerly a church, but finally reverted to the government and was disposed of 
to the railroad company. It seems strange that a once beautiful church should 
end in being the scene of excitement that attends the arrival of a train. The 
sulphur baths of this resort are a little way out of town but a drive through the 
rustic scenery of a primitive region repays one for the trip. In this old town, full 



298 



MEXICO 



of peculiar legends and romances, the natural Indian folk mingle their ancient 
customs with the modern. 

Tehuacan is called Mexico's Carlsbad. It is one of the popular springs that 
are splendid specifics for many ills. There are some modest hotels here. The 

little town is very picturesque and 
retains the mark of centuries, having 
been founded in 1524, by the Span- 
iards. The antiquity of the town, the 
primitive manners of the people, lend 
more attraction to the searcher for 
health than the more modern hotels of 
thef ashionable resorts. There are com- 
fort and pleasure to be found and ac- 
commodation for the most fastidious. 
Cholula is an old city that dates 
from before the Conquest. It was a 
commercial centre and was one of the 
most populous and flourishing cities 
during the time of the Aztec Confed- 
eracy. It was the scene, in 1519, of a 
fearful battle between the Spanish 
Conquerors and the Cholulans, in 
which many of the inhabitants were 
massacred. 

The tradition of Quetzalcoatl and 
his life up among the great purple sun- 
lit hills is a most beautiful story. Never was there a more tender spirit than 
Quetzalcoatl, who loved all living creatures and could not bear that any should 
suffer or live in sin and ignorance. But the people, while they loved him, feared 
the other powerful gods, who were devoted to bloodshed and battle. They built 
temples and altars and daily offered human sacrifices to the gods of war. 
This grovelling fear filled the great heart of Quetzalcoatl with pity and deep 
sorrow, and so he left his beautiful, peaceful home to teach these people, with a 
wonderful eloquence, the gospel of love and charity. Such was his influence that 
at last they deserted the altars of the cruel gods, and instead of offering human 




THE ARCADE, PUEBLA. 



PUEBLA 299 

holocausts, in which quivering hearts burned upon the sacred fires, they climbed 
the hills to lay upon an altar of Quetzalcoatl flowers and fruits. 

The people of Cholula began the construction of the great pyramid in mem- 
ory of Quetzalcoatl. On the top of it they built the temple of Cholula, and dedi- 
cated it to the worship of the "fair god." For generations they tilled and builded 
until more than a century afterward the pyramid was completed, standing bold 
and distinct on the dust-blown plain, the everlasting token of a nation's faith. 
They believed that this pyramid would stand until Quetzalcoatl should come 
back to them. 

The view from the top of the great pyramid toward evening is almost beyond 
description. With the softened light of the setting sun upon the plains and the 
hills one can easily understand why it was that the gods and the angels loved this 
region. Back from the soft tender lights in the valleys the great mountains 
stretch up bold and distinct against a background of the palest aerial blue that 
contrasts wonderfully with the varying lights on the mountain side. 

The perpendicular height of the pyramid is one hundred and seventy-seven 
feet. I ts base is one thousand four hundred and twenty-three feet long — twice as 
long as that of the great pyramid of Cheops. It may give some idea of its dimen- 
sions to state that its base, which is square, covers about forty-four acres and 
the platform on its truncated summit embraces more than one acre. It reminds 
one of those colossal monuments of brickwork which are still seen in ruins on the 
banks of the Euphrates, and in much better preservation on those of the Nile. 

"Nothing could be more grand than the view which met the eye from the 
area on the truncated summit of the pyramid. Toward the west stretched that 
bold barrier of porphyritic rock which nature had reared around the valley of 
Mexico, with the huge Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl standing like two colossal 
sentinels to guard the entrance to the enchanted region. Far away to the east 
was seen the conical head of Orizaba soaring high into the clouds, and nearer, 
the barren though beautifully-shaped Sierra de la Malinche, throwing its broad 
shadows over the plains of Tlaxcala. Three of these are volcanoes higher than 
the highest mountain peak in Europe and shrouded in snows which never melt 
under the fierce sun of the tropics. At the foot of the spectator lay the sacred 
city of Cholula, with its bright towers and pinnacles sparkling in the sun, repos- 
ing amidst gardens and verdant groves, which then thickly studded the culti- 
vated environs of the capital. Such was the magnificent prospect which met the 



300 



MEXICO 



gaze of the conquerors, and may still, with slight change, meet that of the modern 
traveller, as from the platform of the great pyramid his eye wanders over the 
fairest portion of the beautiful plateau of Puebla." So wrote Prescott. 

The great temple was afterward purified by Cortes's orders and the standard 
of the cross solemnly planted in its midst. From this pyramid, it is interesting to 
know, Baron von Humboldt made many of his valuable astronomical calculations. 

The church now standing there is dedicated to the Virgin de los Remedios. 
The popular tradition among the native Indians is that the pyramid was erected 
by a family of giants who had escaped inundation and intended to raise it into 
the clouds, had not the gods become angry and sent down fire from heaven to 
stop them where it is truncated. 

Cholula probably numbers now some five thousand people. But there is no 
doubt that at the time of the conquest it was one of the largest towns in Mexico. 

But what a land of romance! How can busy twentieth-century people 
realize that in 1519 such events were making Mexican history, and that even then 
the pyramid dated far back of legend or tradition? 




THE PENITENTIARY, PUEBLA. 



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AVENUE LEADING TO SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT. 



CHAPTER XVI 



TLAXCALA 



TLAXCALA was the ancient republic for many years before the Conquest, 
and retained its independence against the Aztecs. It is noted in history as 
being the place where Cortes met with so much encouragement and help from the 
Tlaxcalans, after he had fought them and shown his strength. It looks like a 
place that had always been old and always picturesque. Romance is in the air 
at every turn. Of Cortes's sojourn, there are many mementoes, an old silken 
banner which he presented to the Tlaxcalan chiefs, a curious piece of silken em- 
broidery depicting the battle between the invaders and the natives, and a grant 
to Tlaxcala made by the Emperor Charles V., whose signature it bears. There 
is also to be seen a number of idols which have been dug up from time to time 
in the neighborhood. The baptismal robes of the chiefs, the genealogical tree of 
chief Xicotencatl, the charter of Philip II. to the city, bearing his signature and 

portrait, in the form of a beautiful parchment book bound in vellum, May 10, 1585, 

303 



304 MEXICO 

more than three hundred years ago. Tlaxcala abounds in interesting relics 
of ancient times. Among them are some very old portraits of the heroes of 
former days, a cloak which belonged to a noble Indian of that time who was the 
first to receive Christian baptism, and the wonderful standard which once 
belonged to Cortes. The Church of San Francisco was the first Catholic Church 
erected in the New World. Its architecture is very original inside and out and 
dates from 1524. The pulpit has a very peculiar form and exquisite filigraned 
work full of gilt carvings; and the sacred vestments, beautifully embroidered 
in silver and gold, were brought over from Spain and used in the first Roman 
Catholic service in this country. These vestments are shown to-day, with the 
first baptismal fountain. The Sanctuary is dedicated to the miraculous Virgin 
of Ocotlan, and is situated on the summit of a little hill close to the city. One 
curious thing about the temple is that one half of it is an architecture of several 
centuries ago, the walls being covered with the finest chiselled workmanship 
possible to imagine, and richly gilt, while the other half is entirely -of modern 
style splendidly sculptured by modern artists. On the walls are hundreds of 
wax reproductions of human limbs, left there by invalids who had been miracu- 
lously cured of various diseases, and who celebrated their cures by giving the 
church these symbols. 

Tlaxcala is the capital of the State, which is bounded on the northeast and 
south by the State of Puebla and on the west by Mexico. Historically it is one 
of the most interesting states in the republic. Almost every building in the 
capital is a relic of the olden times. The Municipal Palace and a few modern 
homes, built with the open courtyard, are the only new houses. This presents 
a marked contrast with the old architecture. Through the enchanting San Mar- 
tin valley will run a new railroad that will prove a boon to the grain growers. It 
will not only be an outlet for many rich properties and the grain of the fertile valley 
• but it will be the most picturesque route in the republic. Wherever the railroads 
have gone the Indians are beginning to forsake their native speech. In Tlaxcala 
one realizes that the Aztec is not a dead language. The Governor of Tlaxcala, 
Colonel Prospero Cahuantzi, has done much to develop and perpetuate Indian 
tradition and institutions. He has published books to that end and also an 
ancient Tlaxcalan record which gives a cyrious history of the conquest told in 
pictures. He writes and speaks this language which is fast becoming extinct. 
The Governor is a pure blooded Indian, born in Ixtulco, a town situated a short 



TLAXCALA 



305 



distance from the City of Tlaxcala. For nearly twenty years he has governed 
the State so wisely and so well that new life has sprung into the old capital. 
Schools and private colleges are now 
established and industry has entered 
upon a period of development. There 
will be inaugurated this year an irriga- 
tion plant which will be of great benefit 
to the vegetation of the State. The 
city is alive with business and every- 
thing looks in a condition of pros- 
perity. The political division of the 
State consists of six districts, which 
are subdivided into municipalities. 
Tlaxcala is the principal and most im- 
portant. It has a population of seven 
thousand five hundred. Three rail- 
roads cross the State: the Mexican 
railroad which runs from Mexico to 
Vera Cruz and the Apizaco branch to 
Puebla, the Interoceanic from Mex- 
ico to Vera Cruz and Acapulco, and 
the Santa Anna and Tlaxcala road. 
The State has various good wagon 
roads which lead to the neighboring states, 
service is good and extensive. 

The soil is productive and the lands are suitable for the cultivation of all 
classes of fruits of the cold zone and all kinds of medicinal plants. The maguey 
is extensively grown and produces large quantities of pulque, a drink for the 
middle classes. It has excellent medicinal qualities and is very nutritious, and 
is consumed greatly by the inhabitants of the southern part of the republic. 
It is useful for fibre of the best class and also makes good alcohol. The State 
includes fertile and extensive plains, being occasionally broken by deep ravines 
or bare hills. The most important mountain range in Tlaxcala is that formed 
by the beautiful mountain of Malinche, or Malintzin. This peak rises to a 
height of four thousand four hundred and sixty-one metres above sea level 




OLD CHURCH TOWER, TLAXCALA. 



The telegraphic and telephonic 



306 



MEXICO 



and captivates the fancy by its imposing and fantastic figure, as it repre- 
sents the body of a woman covered by a shroud and the head shining with the 
snow which forms a crown. Sometimes the figure is lost among the clouds 
which envelop a part of the mountain. Often these clouds are agitated by 
storms which render a spectacle startling to look on and without equal in the 
republic of Mexico. The climate is healthy, dry and cold, especially in the 
mountains, where frosts are frequent throughout the winter. The mining 
in the state is of importance. There are some silver, copper and lead mines. 

Iron, lime, chalk, and clays of 
good quality exist. 

Corn is the principal 
product, although everything 
grows in this rich soil, and 
through the introduction of 
modern methods of agricult- 
ure the produce of the State 
has been doubled. 

There are distilleries for 
the production of alcohol, flour 
mills, and factories of cotton 
goods and prints. These are 
all equipped with the latest 
machinery. 

In the Cuauhtemoc dis- 
trict there is a foundry for 
artistic bronze work which has 
been doing work of great credit 
to the State. 

Tlaxcala was the scene of 
much human tragedy during 
the Cortes conquest. It is 
one of the oldest places in Mexico and it was founded by the Chichimecs. 
They came on the grand plateau about the same time as the kindred races, at 
the close of the twelfth century, and planted themselves on the western border of 
Lake Tezcuco. Here they remained many years engaged in the usual pursuits of a 




SENOR CORONEL PROSPERO CAHUANTZI. 



TLAXCALA 307 

bold and partially civilized people. From some cause they incurred the enmity 
of the surrounding tribes; a coalition was formed against them and a bloody battle 
was fought on the plains of Poyauhtlan in which the Tlaxcalans were completely 
victorious. Disheartened with their residence among nations with whom they 



ARCHWAY ENTRANCE TO SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT 

found so little favor the conquering people resolved to migrate. They sepa- 
rated into three divisions, the largest of which taking a southern course by the 
great volcano of Mexico, wound round the ancient city of Cholula and finally 
settled in the district of country overshadowed by the Sierra of Tlaxcala. The 
warm and fruitful valleys locked in the embrace of this brotherhood of mountains 
afforded means of subsistence for an agricultural people, while the bold eminences 
of the Sierra presented secure positions for their town. Yellow harvests of maize 
and the bountiful maguey covered the rocky hillside and contributed to the wealth 
of the little republic. Their geographical position was encompassed with moun- 
tains and their warlike bravery gave them a reputation as soldiers and excited the 
wonder of Cortes and his army. Nowhere else did the Spaniards encounter such 
troops or meet with such determined resistance, and the Spaniard was quick to 
see that the Tlaxcalans would serve him much better as friends than as enemies. 



308 



MEXICO 



"Nothing could be more picturesque than the aspect of these Indian bat- 
talions, with the naked bodies of the common soldiers gaudily painted, the fan- 
tastic helmets of the chiefs glittering with gold and precious stones, and the 
glowing panoplies of featherwork which decorated their persons. Innumerable 
darts and spears, tipped with points of transparent iztli, or fiery copper, sparkled 
bright in the morning sun, like the phosphoric gleams playing on the surface of 
a troubled sea, while the rear of the mighty host was dark with the shadows of 
banners on which were emblazoned the armorial bearings of the great Tlaxcalan 
and Otomi chieftains. Among these, the white heron on the rock, the cognizance 
of the house of Xicotencatl was conspicuous and still more the golden eagle 
with outspread wings, in the fashion of a Roman signum, richly ornamented with 

emeralds and silver-work, the great 
standard of the republic of Tlaxcala. 
' ' The common file wore no cov- 
ering except a girdle around the 
loins. Their bodies were painted 
with appropriate colors of the chief- 
tain whose banner they followed. 
The feather-mail of the higher class 
of warriors exhibited also a similar 
selection of colors for the like ob- 
ject, in the same manner as the 
colors of the tartan indicate the 
peculiar clan of the Highlander. 
The caciques and principal warriors 
were clothed in quilted cotton tunics 
two inches thick, which, fitting close 
to the body, protected also the 
thighs and the shoulders. Over 
these the wealthier Indians wore 
cuirasses of thin gold plate or silver. 
Their legs were defended by leathern 
boots or sandals trimmed with gold. But the most brilliant part of their cos- 
tumes was a rich mantle of the Plumaje or feather work, embroidered with 
curious art, and furnishing some resemblance to the gorgeous surcoat worn by 




SACRED WELL OF OCOTLAN. 



TLAXCALA 



309 



the European knight over his armor in the middle ages. This graceful and 
picturesque dress was surmounted by a fantastic head-piece, made of wood or 
leather, representing the head of some 
wild animal, and frequently displaying 
a formidable array of teeth. With 
this covering the warrior's head was 
enveloped, producing a most pictur- 
esque and hideous effect. From the 
crown floated a splendid panache of 
the richly variegated plumage of the 
tropics, indicating by its form and 
colors the rank and family of the 
wearer. To complete this defensive 
armor, they carried shields or targets 
made sometimes of wood covered with 
leather, but more usually of a light 
frame of reed quilted with cotton, 
which were preferred as tougher and 
less liable to fracture than the former. 
They had other bucklers in which the 
cotton was covered with an elastic 
substance, enabling them to be shut 
up in a more compact form, like a 

fan or umbrella. These shields were decorated with showy ornaments, according 
to the taste or wealth of the wearer, and fringed with a beautiful pendant of 
feather-work. 

"Their weapons were slings, bows and arrows, javelins, and darts. They 
were accomplished archers, and would discharge two or even three arrows at a 
time. But they most excelled in throwing the javelin. One species of this, 
with a thong attached to it, which remained in the slinger's hand that he might 
recall the weapon, was especially dreaded by the Spaniards. These various 
weapons were pointed with bone or the mineral iztli (obsidian), the hard sub- 
stance already noticed as capable of taking an edge like a razor, though easily 
blunted. Their spears and arrows were also frequently headed with copper. 
Instead of a sword they bore a two-handed staff about three and a half feet 





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RUINS OF THE ROYAL CHURCH, TLAXCALA. 



310 MEXICO 

long, in which at regular distances were inserted, tranversely, sharp blades of 
iztli, a formidable weapon, which, as an eye-witness assures us, he had seen 
fell a horse at a blow. 

"Such was the costume of the Tlaxcalan warrior, and of that great family 
of nations generally who occupied the plateau of Anahuac. " 

Their weapons, even with their bravery, were no match for the military 
science of the Spaniards; and after four terrible battles, preceded by a good deal 
of sharp skirmishing, the Tlaxcalans were defeated. After some political delays 
they were completely subdued and became the faithful allies of the Spaniards. 
Had this not been effected, it is doubtful if Cortes's name would have descended 
as "the great conqueror," at least in Mexico. 

Tlaxcala City dates far back of Cortes's arrival in the place, where he fought 
and subdued with such excellent effect. The very air is alive with romance and 
tradition. Age, hoary and musty, is stamped everywhere, although the people 
are wideawake and prosperous. 

The houses were built for the most part of mud or earth, the better sort, of 
stone and lime, or of bricks dried in the sun. They were unimproved with doors, 
or windows but in the apertures of the former hung mats fringed with pieces of 
copper or something which by its tinkling sound gave notice of anyone's entrance. 

The streets were narrow and dark. The people gathered in the market places 
on a public day. These meetings were fairs, held, in all great towns, every fifth 
day, and attended by the inhabitants of the adjacent country, who brought there 
for sale every description of domestic produce and manufacture with which they 
were acquainted. They peculiarly excelled in pottery, which was considered 
equal to the best in Europe. It is further proof of civilized habits that the 
Spaniards found baths, both of vapor and of hot water, familiarly used by the 
inhabitants. A still higher proof of refinement was discerned in the existence of 
a vigilant police which suppressed everything like disorder. 

The ancient capital, through one-quarter of which flowed the rapid current 
of the Zahuatl, stretched along the summits and sides of the hills, at whose base 
are now gathered the remnant of its once flourishing population. Far beyond, 
to the southeast, extended the bold Sierra of Tlaxcala, and the huge Malinche, 
crowned with the usual silver diadem of the highest Andes, its shaggy sides 
clothed with dark green forests of firs, gigantic sycamores, and oaks whose 
towering stems rose to the height of forty or fifty feet unencumbered by a branch. 



TLAXCALA 



311 



The bleak winds of the Sierra gave an austerity to the climate unlike the sunny 
skies and genial temperature of the lower regions; it was far more favorable to 
development of both the physical 
and the moral energies. A bold 
and hardy peasantry was nurtured 
among the recesses of the hills, fit 
equally to cultivate the land in 
peace and to defend it in war. 
Unlike the spoiled child of Nature, 
who derives such facilities of sub- 
sistence from her too prodigal 
hand as supersede the necessity 
of exertion on his part, the Tlax- 
calan earned his bread — not from 
an ungrateful soil — by the sweat 
of his brow. He led a life of tem- 
perance and toil. Cut off by his 
long wars with the Aztecs from a 
commercial intercourse he was 
driven chiefly to agricultural 
labor, the occupation most pro- 
pitious to purity of morals and 
sinewy strength of constitution. 
His honest breast glowed with 
patriotism, or local attachment to the soil, which is the fruit of its diligent 
culture, while he was elevated by a proud consciousness of independence, the 
natural birthright of the child of the mountains. Such was the race with whom 
Cortes was associated for the achievement of his great work. 

Few people, perhaps none except scientists, know that in the heart of this 
ancient State is a race of pygmies. They are small of stature, with dark-brown 
skin, broad faces, and shocks of black tangled hair. They are very shy and wild- 
looking and wear serapes made of coarse sacking. Fine clearings on the hill-slopes 
extend almost to the crest of the mountains. Flourishing fields of grain, cattle 
grazing in the pastures, and log houses of substantial construction surrounded 
by neat little enclosures are occupied by these peaceful little men and women. 




LA PARROQUIA. 



312 



MEXICO 



Up in that region, between Ajutla and Juquila, is a marvelous lake of clouds. 
A deep blue sky and brilliant southern sun, without a suggestion of mist in 
the still air, make the place wonderful on a grand scale. Clad with foliage clear 
to the summit, the great ridge forms half of a mighty amphitheatre whose sides 
are furrowed by mountain torrents. Five distant mountains form the wall of 
an oval valley with lower peaks running parallel. At one side a spur juts out, 
making the only notable break in the enclosing rim. The great lake seems to 
approach this edge like a mighty river and pour over the great precipice like a 
dozen Niagaras combined in one. It is a cloud-lake, mighty, mysterious and 
noiseless, making one of the greatest wonders in this region of wonders. 

The Tlaxcala of to-day is situated in the centre of a beautiful country and has 
illimitable advantages. It is a favorite spot for the artist and student. Gover- 
nor Prospero Cahuantzi has a most interesting and unique personality, and his 
hospitality to strangers is one of the reasons of the popularity of the capital 
city. A visit to Mexico is not complete without seeing this remarkable old 
historical place. 




OLDEST PULPIT AND ALTAR IN AMERICA. 




PANORAMA OF MINERAL DEL CHICO. 



CHAPTER XVII 



HIDALGO 



RICHLY endowed by Nature, the State of Hidalgo contains throughout its 
extent, rich metalliferous deposits exceeding the wealth of Ormuz or of 
Ind. The innumerable enterprises for developing this country have produced 
marvellous results in mining its great resources. 

Besides silver ore, lead, gold and iron, some precious stones abound. It is 
rich in woods and luxurious verdure. 

This State bears the name of the great patriot, Hidalgo. It has a cluster of 
prosperous cities, El Salto, San Antonio, Marquez, Nopala, Cazbero, along the 
lines of the Mexican Central, Pachuca the busy capital, Tlaxcoapan, Rosal, 
Temoaya and Concepcion are on a branch line. It is a comparatively small 
State but it ranks as one of great importance, being a prolific source of agricul- 
ture and manufacture as well as mineral wealth, which has attracted the atten- 
tion of the world. With a splendid chain of railroads and tramways, all parts 

of the State are easy to reach. 

315 



316 



MEXICO 



Majestic mountains, valleys, and plains add to the natural beauty of the 
State and this part of the republic enjoys a pleasant but varied climate. 

Few rivers are found, but there is one famous water-fall, called the Regla 
Cascade, some mineral springs of medicinal note, and the beautiful lakes of 
Metztitlan, Tecomulco, Apam, Zupitlan. 

In the district of Pachuca are the mining camps, Zimapan, Jacala, and Can- 
cando. Cancando, a magnetic iron mountain ten thousand feet high, appears 
to be one mass of iron so rich as to contain about eighty per cent, of pure iron. 
The ore, however, is so rich that a flux is required to smelt it. These mines were 
not exploited until after the war of independence, although as early as 1824 many 

mining claims in that district were 
taken up and denounced, among 
them San Antonio, El Carmen, 
San Cosme and Las Animas. 

Encarnacion has an up-to- 
date works, producing a million 
and a half kilos of bar iron per 
year and possesses all the modern 
equipments. One of the best 
known gold mines of the early 
days of New Spain was San Jose 
del Oro, ten thousand feet above 
the sea. It is difficult of access 
and is not worked to any great 
extent at the present day. 

The State of Hidalgo produces 
millions of dollars worth of silver 
per year from its two mineral cen- 
tres. Among the most notable 
mines of the district are Zimapan, 
San Martin, San Judas; of the 
Santa Gertrudis, San Eugenio, San 




GOVERNOR SENOR DON PEDRO RODRIGUEZ. 



Real del Monte groups, San Francisco 
Rafael, San Miguel Tajo and Barron. 

Pachuca has twelve reduction works; El Chico, nine; Real del Monte, 
eight; and Zimapan, eight. There are in this State many iron works and in the 



HIDALGO 



317 



districts of Zacualtipan and Huejutla are deposits of coal now developed by an 
important company. In Molango are graphite deposits. The mines in Pachuca 
were worked by the Spaniards in 1523, only two years after the conquest and 
untold millions 
have been with- 
drawn from the 
inexhaustible re- 
source where busy 
men to-day still 
delve with the 
same eagerness as 
in the days of old. 

.This is one of 
the few districts 
in the world where 
the plant vanilla 
grows, which con- 
tributes to the 
enormous, almost 
fabulous, riches of 
some of the Mex- 
ican planters. In this State is found the same class of maguey as in Mexico. 
It is called the marvel plant and is the very highest quality and largest yield. 
In Apam, Pachuca and Tula all classes of cereals are produced and Apam and 
Pachuca are the greatest centres for the production of pulque. In the hotter 
districts coffee, india rubber and other valuable products yield splendid bounty 
to the farmers and there is abundant supply of medicinal plants and valuable 
cabinet woods. The yield of pulque is about a gallon and a half a day for each 
plant during three months of the year. This industry alone yields millions of 
dollars a year in the State of Hidalgo. Mescal, a highly intoxicating liquor, 
ordinarily called Tequila, is made at the Tequila Hacienda. It is one of the 
popular drinks among certain classes and is noted for its fiery strength, which 
none but a cultivated taste can endure. 

The capital, Pachuca, is most interesting, with characteristics of a miners' 
town. The houses are built with an idea of comfort and their appearance is 




THE GOVERNOR'S PALACE. 



318 



MEXICO 



somewhat different from the dwellings one sees in other large cities. American 
and English capital has taken a firm hold and the spirit of enterprise and energy 
has given this city the appearance of a business centre. The hotels are alive 
with mining men and travelers of staunch purpose, the colonies are alert with 
social enjoyment, while the government of the city is conducted with zealous 
care and attention. The conditions of the state, especially under the present 
Governor, lend themselves most favorably to the establishment of new enter- 
prises. 

Senor Don Pedro Ladislao Rodriguez was born in the State of Oaxaca, from 
whence came so many of Mexico's noted statesmen. He has given his energies 
and active service to his country. He fought in the War of the Reform, the War 
of the Intervention, and afterward retired to a private life of strenuous work. 
He became expert in all branches of telegraphy, erected lines between Mexico 
City and various capitals of the states, besides being the director and manager 
of telegraph offices throughout the republic. He evinced such strong interest 
in political affairs that he was elected to Congress and through his strength 




SAN JULIO MINE. 



and splendid bearing in public matters he rose to the prominence of one of 
Mexico's leading political powers. Since assuming this important office, he 



HIDALGO 



319 



has dedicated his best efforts to the advancement of his State. Through his 
wise administration, Hidalgo has paid its public debt, has a large surplus in 
the treasury, and the government has been placed on a splendid business basis. 
Public instruction is one of 
the main features of the ad- 
ministration of this able ex- 
ecutive. He is endeavoring 
to wipe out illiteracy among 
the people; the school sys- 
tem has attracted wide- 
spread attention. There is 
a Scientific and Industrial 
Literary Institute in which 
are prosecuted the studies 
necessary for the occupa- 
tions of assaying, topo- 
graphic, hydrographic, and 
mining engineering. There 
is also a practical mining 
school belonging to the Fed- 
eral Government where all 
practical training in mining 
exploitation under profes- 
sors of Metallurgy is ac- 
quired. 

Pachuca has splendid 
architecture and some old 
palaces and churches form 

an interesting spectacle of the city. It is considered one of the most prosperous 
cities in the republic, in proportion to its population, and its rich metal districts 
make it noted as one of the most celebrated mining centres of the world. 

The churches, La Parroquia, San Francisco and San Juan de Dios are notable 
for their solid masonry and size. A beautiful theatre, a literary institute of 
higher education and good charitable institutions are among the more notable 
buildings. Private academies flourish and a Prostestant church built by the 




STATUE OF HIDALGO. 



320 



MEXICO 



English-speaking colony help to make this city picturesque and interesting, with 
its admixture of ancient and modern architecture. 

During the month of September, when the Mexicans were celebrating 
their Centennial of Independence, this capital was foremost in its enthusiasm. 




HACIENDA LORETO. 



Triumphant arches were erected, the city was festooned in gay national colors, 
myriads of lights gave a dazzling appearance of gaiety and the ceremonials that 
took place were very imposing. New schools were inaugurated, new monuments 
dedicated and all public buildings opened officially. 

Tula is a city built upon a series of terraces in a beautiful valley teeming 
with tropical flowers and foliage. It is noted for Toltec ruins and relics which 
have been found there. The old church built three hundred years ago has walls 
seven feet thick and the tower is one hundred and twenty-five feet high. It lies 
in the valley which the Toltecs entered when they came southward in 648, 
over twelve hundred and fifty years ago. A thousand years ago Tula was an 
important town and was the capital of Mexico until 1325. Proof of this 
antiquity lies everywhere — the grand houses, the broken columns, and quaint 
images that are still remaining relics in the present town. Here is the witchery 
of an old world, shadowy people, vague and mystical rights and ceremonies. In 



HIDALGO 



321 




XATAL MINE 



the small Plaza stand the remains of 
old gods, and crumbling into dust is 
an old pyramid, built many centuries 
ago. Where once the idolatrous wor- 
ship of the Aztecs took place, a purer 
religion of to-day is worshipped and 
the people have thrown off the lethargy 
of the past. There are three ancient 
bridges in this vicinity. It is claimed 
that one of these bridges was built in 
210 A.D., the ruins of which remain, 
forming a picturesque bit of Tula. 

"The Treasury of Montezuma," 
now in ruins, is on the top of the hill. 
There are two distinct kinds of frag- 
mentary walls, eight feet thick. There 
is one large room thirty-two feet long 
with the chunam flooring nearly per- 
fect. The people of Tula visit these ruins continually, believing many treasures 
to be concealed there. They dream dreams, and then go out and sink pits in the 

flooring, hoping to enrich them- 
selves with wonderful treasures of 
Montezuma's time. 

There are other strange relics 
of ancient times on another hill 
near Tula. These are carved rocks 
resting upon a stratum of adobe, 
below which the hill slopes down 
to the river precipitously. The 
carvings are symbolical, and are 
supposed to have been made about 
1160 A.D. in the Chichimec era. 

The canal of Nochistongo is 
an open cut about twelve miles 
long with an average depth of one 




REAL DEL MONTE MINE. 



322 



MEXICO 



hundred and eighty feet and an average width of three hundred feet, but one 
part is six hundred feet wide. It was built in 1607, to save the city of Mexico 
from the floods of Lake Tezcuco. It can be seen from the railroad, the trains 
passing along the side of the cut. 

In the Barranca of Itzala nature has been very lavish in her imposing and 
majestic beauty. The mountains of this State are unusually high and pictur- 
esque. The Sierras of Pachuca have lost much of their beauty on account of 
the mining camps interspersed, but the canon of the virgin Omitlan affords 
beautiful views. The principal mountain chain is in Zacualtipan and Metztip- 
lan which forms deep ravines and is a beautiful aspect to the lover of nature. 
Journeys through these mountains on the road to the different mining camps 
are very interesting. 




SAN RAFAEL MINE. 




DEVIL'S BACKBONE, TOMASOPO CANON. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

TRANSPORTATION 

THE position of Mexico on the western continent is so commanding as to 
assure it an ever-growing participation in the world's commerce. With 
the coming of the locomotive a wilderness was transformed into a busy world. 
Eager miners have peopled the hills; industrious tillers, the fruitful valleys; 
the lumbermen have taken from the forests great timbers; a chain of central 
marts has stretched from border "to border, joined by the magic steel way; 
and in many sections great industries have been established to convert raw 
products into materials demanded by modern civilization. The transformation 
has been complete and has given birth to new ambitions and imparted new 
energies to the people. 

The development of the material resources of a nation is directly dependent 
on the means of transportation and communication which it possesses. For cen- 
turies the great mineral wealth of Mexico has been liberally exploited and means 
of transportation secured, beginning with the forced labor of the Indians en- 
slaved by the conquerors and passing through the intermediate stages of mule- 
back and wagon-road till the modern railway appeared, to take the treasures 

325 



326 MEXICO 

of the mountain afar. Vast as these resources were, they were little better 
than wasted treasure without the means of transportation to domestic and 
foreign markets. 

The great change in means of transportation came late to Mexico. Politi- 
cal troubles long dominated national thought and absorbed the energy of the 
people. It was not until 1873, that the first railroad was opened from Mexico 
to Vera Cruz. From the moment that settled political conditions had been 
secured the people of Mexico turned to the task of developing railroad transpor- 
tation and during the terms of General Diaz the extension of railroads has 
assumed a leading and constant policy of the government, the fruits of which 
are manifest in commerce, which has been enormously expanded; the active 
wealth of the nation increased; new industries introduced; cities and towns estab- 
lished and the general comfort and convenience of the people greatly augmented. 
With this enterprise in land transportation, there has been a persistent activity 
in providing port and harbor facilities. The progress and management of the 
railroads have always been assiduously observed by the government and the 
laws controlling them have been justly and liberally applied. Nevertheless, 
many conditions have operated to prevent a uniformly direct and efficient super- 
vision commensurate with the growing importance of the service. 

In order to protect the people of Mexico, the government deemed it a duty 
to acquire a more efficient control by ownership of stock. In 1902, the govern- 
ment purchased five million dollars of the stock of the Interoceanic Railway, 
which was to become the pivotal operation on which turned the great merger- 
system. In 1903, the Minister of Finance concluded negotiations with the 
interests in control of the National Railroad, which were making strenuous 
efforts to obtain control of the Interoceanic, by which the government acquired 
the majority holding in the National, which system was to be reorganized, the 
government giving as part consideration for its purchase the Interoceanic stock. 
It was expected that this degree of intervention would be sufficient to enable the 
government to prevent harmful combination of ownership. 

In 1906, the Mexican Central road was threatened with absorption by 
American financiers, an outcome that would be exceedingly in opposition to 
the policy of the government. A plan was adopted by Congress providing for 
the consolidation of the National and the Central systems by means of a new 
company, entirely Mexican, the majority of the shares in which the government 



TRANSPORTATION 



327 



should own. This plan required no cash payment for such shares, but the stock 
of the government in the National reverted to the new company and the gov- 
ernment guaranteed an issue of bonds by it. The new concern was incorporated 




OLDEST RAILWAY STATION IN THE WORLD, CUAUTLA. 



in July, 1907, with a bond capital of eight hundred and thirty-four millions and 
share capital of four hundred and sixty millions, Mexican currency value. 

The merged systems included in the National Railways of Mexico are the 
former Mexican Central, the National, the International, the Interoceanic, and 
the Hidalgo and Northeastern, whose combined mileage is seven thousand and 
twelve. Besides these, the absolute ownership of the Tehuantepec National 
and the Vera Cruz and Isthmus Road is vested in the government. The result 
of this master-policy is that seventy per cent, of the trackage of roads built 
under concessions from the National Government is now either actually owned 
or controlled by it. 

The National Railways of Mexico offer six different routes between the 
United States and Mexico. A distinguished American, Mr. E. N. Brown, is the 
President of the National Railways. 

The importance of control of the railroads by the government cannot be 
overestimated in considering the development of the country. It operates as a 



328 



MEXICO 



salutary check on the independent roads in the matter of tolls and as an incentive 
to better service and enlarged facilities; it was an indispensable policy in view 
of the ineffectual control or supervision possible under the general railway law, 
if the government would regulate the management of railways, to secure proper 
advantages to Mexico, and prevent the growth of corporate influence which might 
even menace that of the government. The broad national policy assures full 
protection to industries, to capitalists, and to communities by protection against 
arbitrary regulations, discriminations, and the rest of the great brood of evils 
that have attended the march of railroad financing in the United States. It will 
tend to general and steady development of newer sections as the result of a com- 
prehensive oversight that will extend inland facilities for national development 
to the full limit of the powers of the government and settlers, and investors 
will not be slow to realize the great advantages to them of stable progressive 
transportation facilities. 




NOCHISTONGO CUT. BUILT BY THE AZTECS TO DRAIN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO. 



Of the Board of Directors, twelve reside in Mexico and nine in New York. 
This progressive move is part of the general effort being made throughout Mexico 
to arrange for adequate land and sea transportation of its products. New lines 



TRANSPORTATION 



329 



of railway are being opened up in the interior on the west coast to meet the 
requirements of new steamship connections, either established or projected. 
Additional steamers are being put upon services already operating and branch 
connections are being made over 
new land routes. The Tehuantepec 
Railway, which crosses the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec, carrying freights 
received from the steamship lines 
plying between the great ports of 
the United States and the eastern 
and western termini, transported 
during the first year of its opera- 
tion merchandise to the value of 
between twenty-five and thirty mil- 
lion dollars, and in the second year 
to the value of thirty-eight million 
dollars. This road, which is nearly 
one hundred and ninety miles in 
length, was constructed chiefly with 
British capital and controlled, in 
part at least, by the Mexican Gov- 
ernment, and was built for the spe- 
cific purpose of handling freight 
between the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans. The harbor of Salina Cruz, 
the Pacific terminus of this railway, is equipped with breakwaters inclosing a 
harbor area of over one hundred and thirty acres, of which ninety-six have 
a depth of thirty-three feet, and a drydock capable of accommodating the 
largest ship on the Pacific Ocean. The wharves are furnished with electric 
derricks and every modern appliance for the handling of the enormous traffic 
of the Tehuantepec line. 

Principal roads which are not included in the Government's merger are the 
Mexican, the pioneer road in the republic, extending from Mexico City to Vera 
Cruz; the Vera Cruz and Isthmus, from Cordoba to Santa Lucrecia, and its 
branch line from Vera Cruz to Tierra Blanca on its main line; the Pan-American, 




ROCK BELOW CHONEBRIDGE, MEXICAN NATIONAL 
RAILWAY. 



330 



MEXICO 



from Gamboa, Oaxaca, to the Guatemalan frontier; and the Tehuantepec 
National from the gulf port of Puerto Mexico to Salina Cruz on the Pacific. On 
the west coast is the great system of the Southern Pacific of Mexico which con- 
nects Nogales, Arizona, with Guadalajara, Jalisco. Short gaps are now under 
construction. The trade is constantly increasing and there are improvements 
in the service. 

This system opens up a magnificent country of boundless and varied 
resources unsurpassably rich in minerals and agricultural possibilities, capable 
of sustaining in prosperity several million people. It is a country with a great 
future that borders on the present. Another great system in course of 

completion is the Kansas City, 
Mexico and Orient Line, whose 
route within Mexico extends 
six hundred and thirty-five 
miles from Presidio del Norte 
on the Rio Grande to the 
port of Topolobampo, in 
Sinaloa. 

Altogether there are some 
fifty railroads in operation 
within the republic and the 
work of extension and con- 
struction is in constant prog- 
ress. The mere statement of 
systems, routes and mileage 
affords but a meagre and un- 
informing presentment of the 
great transportation facilities 
in Mexico. 

On December 12, 1908, 
President Diaz formally opened 
the new railroad from Guada- 
lajara to Manzanillo. 
The rail communication established between Guadalajara and Colima and 
thence over the line already in operation to Manzanillo gives Mexico a second 




TEQU1XQUIAC TUNNEL. 



TRANSPORTATION 



331 



transcontinental railway connecting the two oceans. The Tehuantepec Rail- 
way is, of course, the principal and shortest route across the continent, but now 




CANON WEST SALAZAR, NATIONAL RAILWAY. 



it becomes possible to leave the steamer at Tampico or Vera Cruz and to travel 
overland through Guadalajara to Manzanillo with only two changes of cars. 

Increased exports of native products, including sugar, are reported since 
the opening of the rail connections to the coast, and large shipments of wheat 
are being received in Guadalajara and Zapotlan. Steamship communication 
with Pacific ports and those of China and Japan have been inaugurated, and 
Manzanillo, as a port of entry, will receive much merchandise which formerly 
had to be forwarded overland from Tampico. 

Manzanillo is one of the oldest and most celebrated ports of the republic. 
When the important port-works at Manzanillo are terminated it will be one of 
the best equipped and most desirable harbors on the Pacific Coast. The port- 
works are being built by Colonel E. K. Smoot, an American engineer. 

This operation has been in the course of construction since 1899, and when 
completed will give the harbor an area of one hundred and sixty-five acres and 
a depth of thirty-nine feet, thus enabling it to accommodate seagoing vessels 



332 



MEXICO 



of deep draught. The breakwater is one of the largest of its kind in the world, 
surpassing those of Cherbourg, France, and Plymouth, England. It is four 
hundred metres long, one hundred wide, and twenty-four deep, constructed of 
large stones and granite blocks weighing from fifty to sixty tons each. 

Within the coast lines of two thousand eight hundred miles on the Pacific 
and one thousand six hundred miles on the Gulf of Mexico and the Carribean 
Sea, Mexico has no less than twenty-four ports on the Gulf of Mexico and 
thirty-one on the Pacific Ocean. Most of the natural harbors of Mexico are 
on the Pacific side, among them the splendid Bay of Acapulco, considered one 
of the most beautiful of the world. While the Atlantic side offers but few 
natural ports, some of them, especially Vera Cruz, and Tampico, have been 
improved and made accessible, so much so, that these two ports are now the most 
important commercial centres. 

Following are the ports of entry open to foreign trade, the other ports 
handling coastwise trade only: 

Gulf Ports: Campeche, Coatzacoalcos (Puerto Mexico), Chetumal, 
Frontera, Isla del Carmen, Isla de Mujeres, Progreso, Puerto Morelos, Tampico, 
Tuxpan, and Vera Cruz. 

Pacific Ports: Acapulco, Altata, Bahia de la Magdelena, Guaymas, La 
Paz, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz, San Bias, Santa Rosalia, 

Todos los Santos, Tonala 
and San Benito. 

Mexico may be reached 
from the sea by several 
lines, either from New York 
or the Gulf ports of the 
United States, or via San 
Francisco, or by one of the 
numerous lines plying be- 
tween European and Mexi- 
can ports. 

The New York and 
Cuba Mail Steamship Com- 
pany, Ward Line, maintains a regular service between New York and Vera 
Cruz and other Mexican ports. 




view on the:.interoceanic '.RAILWAY. 



TRANSPORTATION 



333 




DRY DOCK, SALINA CRUZ. 



The fleet of the Ward Line has an aggregate tonnage of nearly seventy-five 
thousand. This embraces as staunch, fast and comfortable ships as are operated 
from any port in the world. 
They are full-powered, of 
the most modern construc- 
tion, built expressly for this 
service, and offer all the 
luxury of travel combined 
with the greatest degree of 
safety. 

The ships of this com- 
pany are all built under 
contract with the United 
States Government and are 
required to undergo a rigid 
examination by naval offi- 
cers before being placed in the service. They are exceptionally seaworthy ves- 
sels, and as, in the event of war, powerful batteries would be installed on them, 
they are necessarily strongly built. The service of the company is well known. 
Passengers who go by the Ward Line for the first time do not fail to remark the 
unusual interest taken in their comfort and enjoyment of the voyage by the 
officers of the ship, and the exceptional attention of the stewards and attendants. 
It is this hospitable solicitude for the welfare of its patrons and the splendid 
cuisine and comfortable quarters that make the general passenger-service of 
the company equal in all respects to that of a high-class hotel. 

The itinerary of the Ward Line is very complete, covering, with railroad 
connections, practically all points in Mexico. 

The largest and fastest steamers are operated in the express service between 
New York and Vera Cruz; steamers call at Havana, Cuba, and Progreso, Mexico. 
At Vera Cruz, the terminal of this route, rail connections are made with the 
Mexican Railway and the Interoceanic Railway, connecting with the Mexican 
Southern Railway for all interior points. Direct steamers ply between New York 
and Tampico, Mexico. 

There is a fast freight line running from London direct to Havana, Puerto 
Mexico, Vera Cruz and Tampico, with sailings every four weeks. This belongs 



334 



MEXICO 



to the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company and is one of the oldest steamship 
lines touching Mexican ports. It dates back to 1840, and was one time a pass- 
enger service between England and Mexico. 

The Mexican-American Steamship Company, the Wolvin Line, the Com- 
pania Transatlantica and the Compania Mexicana de Navegacion, the American- 
Hawaiian Steamship Company have established regular steamers to Mexico. 

The Munson Steamship Line to Cuba and Mexico has contracted with the 
Mexican Government for a service of at least two round trips per month between 
ports of the United States on the Atlantic Coast or the Gulf of Mexico and one 
or more Mexican Gulf ports. The term of the contract is for three years from 
January, 1909. 

On the Pacific side, the Pacific Mail Steamship Company provides the 
means of communication, its steamers sail regularly every ten days from San 




TELEGRAPH OFFICE IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 



Francisco, calling at Mazatlan, San Bias, Manzanillo, Acapulco, and Salina 
Cruz, making the run from San Francisco to Salina Cruz in eleven days, while 



TRANSPORTATION 335 

the time employed between San Francisco and the other ports varies according 
to their respective distances. This company have established a through service 
from San Francisco to Panama, making the trip much shorter. 

This offers a splendid chance to see the Pacific side of Mexico. The 
steamers are luxurious and pass through the most tropical part of the republic. 
This is a favorite route to New York, as it touches at Panama and connects with 
the Panama Railroad and Steamship Line for New York. The steamers of this 
line are noted for comfort and elegance. 

The Panama Railroad is the great International highway between the 
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and gives the passengers an opportunity of seeing 
the famous Panama Canal now under construction. 

The Pacific Coast Steamship Company's vessels leave San Francisco on 
the seventh of every month, calling at Ensenada, Magdalena Bay, Mazatlan, 
Altata, La Paz, Topolobampo, Santa Rosalia and Guaymas. The steamers 
of the Kosmos Line sail from San Francisco every two or three weeks and 
call at Mazatlan, San Bias, Manzanillo, Acapulco, Salina Cruz, Tonala and 
San Benito. 

The Jebsen Line issues through bills of lading to all interior points and 
passenger tickets into Mexico via the newly-opened railways from Manzanillo. 

Several lines of steamers maintain a regular coastwise service between the 
different ports of Mexico, the most important of these being the Campania 
Naviera del Pacifico, which is subsidized by the Mexican Government. 

The French Steamship Company, the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 
has inaugurated a regular freight service between France and Puerto Mexico, 
the Atlantic terminal of the Tehuantepec Railway. 

The Italian Navigation Company of Genoa also has in contemplation a 
steamer service to Puerto Mexico. 

It is from this port that Hawaiian sugar shipped over the Isthmian route 
is forwarded on the Atlantic side. The sugar is carried by the American-Ha- 
waiian Steamship Company to Salina Cruz on a schedule providing for three 
steamers a month, with an average cargo of twelve thousand tons each. It is 
estimated that over three hundred and seventy-five thousand tons of sugar were 
handled over the Tehuantepec Railroad in 1910. Additional ships are to be 
added to the Honolulu, San Francisco, and Salina Cruz service, as the require- 
ments of the traffic make it necessary. 



336 



MEXICO 



In the month of November, 1908, Congress, passed a law establishing a 
system of receipts for postal money orders both at home and abroad, the former 
being inaugurated February 1, 1909, and the latter, embracing Canada, Germany, 
France, Great Britain and Salvador, on March 1, 1909. Through the German 
service a system of postal money orders was also established between Mexico 
and Turkey, and the parcels-post rates with Germany are modified. 

The federal telegraph lines in the republic have an extension of forty thous- 
and six hundred and forty miles and new offices are being opened in accordance 
with the needs of the service. Government adherence to the International 
Wireless Convention, signed at Berlin, Germany, November 30, 1906, has 
been announced. Wireless telegraph stations have been installed in Lower 
California, placing that district in communication with the rest of the republic. 

Sehor Camilo Gonzalez is the director of the Federal Telegraph of Mexico 
and under his splendid supervision the system has been much improved. In 
June, 1900, there were two million eight hundred and thirty-three thousand 
two hundred and ninety-six messages transmitted and in the same month of 
1910, four million four hundred and sixty-six thousand eight hundred and sixty- 
six messages were sent. 




TOMASOPO CANON. 




THE CATHEDRAL 



CHAPTER XIX 



OAXACA 



THE road to Oaxaca leads through a great amphitheatre of lofty and mighty 
mountains with rushing water at the base and flecks of green fields and 
beautiful foliage sweeping out into the distance. This State is known as the 
cradle of the patriots. The influence of the native land of the president has been 
felt throughout the republic, for no State has furnished such brilliant men, such 
valiant soldiers, financiers and able statesmen. The echoes of history resound 
with the brave deeds of Benito Juarez, Porfirio Diaz, Romera and Mariscal. 

Oaxaca, one of the largest of the Mexican States, has an area of over sixty 
thousand square miles. It lies between the States of Puebla and Vera Cruz on 
the north and the Pacific Ocean on the south. The lower or eastern end of the 
State is part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Here, as in most other Mexican 
States, there are three distinct zones of vegetation. In the mountains, of which 

there are several ranges, and on the higher plains, the crops and timber are 

339 



340 MEXICO 

similar to those of the northern United States. Below the foothills, corn, 
cotton, sugar and tobacco are the principal crops and in the very deep valleys 
and toward the coast the vegetation is purely tropical. 

More than one-third of the population, estimated at about one million, 
are pure blooded Indians, mostly belonging to tribes of the Zapotec nation. 
These people are great fighters and delight in war; notwithstanding, during the 
administration of President Diaz, they realized the benefit of peace and order 
and the charm of industry. 

Great herds of cattle are the main support in the central parts of the State. 
It has long been the custom to drive the exportable surplus of these cattle to 
Mexico and Puebla, the trip consuming three months, but since the railways are 
finished the profits of the ranchmen have increased by the easier transportation. 

Two main lines now serve parts of the State. One, the Mexican Southern, 
runs from Puebla to Oaxaca, and the other, the Tehuantepec, crosses the foot of 
the State. 

The hospitality of Oaxacans is well known. It is sufficient to knock at any 
door in that charming State to have it opened with offers of shelter, food, and 
friendliness, without money and without price. Until within a few years, inns 
and hotels were unknown, the hospitality among the private houses doing away 
with the need of such accommodations. The friendship and affection of the 
Oaxacans for one another are proverbial. Social reunions are constantly held, 
and there is much gaiety and light-heartedness in consequence. 

From its geographical position, geological formation, fuel and water, means 
of communication and climate, the State of Oaxaca is a veritable paradise for the 
prospector and capitalist seeking investment in mining properties. Two vast 
mountain ranges traverse the State from north to south, whose peaks in many 
cases rise to an altitude of from ten to twelve thousand feet. 

These mountain ranges, which are the culminations of the Rocky Mountains 
of the United States and the Sierra Madre of Southern Mexico, are highly 
mineralized throughout their length and breadth. 

The principal metals found in these hills are gold, silver, copper, lead, and 
iron, either free or in various combinations and with one another. The veins 
carrying free gold are those most extensively worked and although comparatively 
few mines have been opened up, those which have been are producing large quan- 
tities of exceedingly rich mineral. 



O AX AC A 



341 



The whole State is practically an unexplored held, only a few districts have 
been superficially prospected. 

Oaxaca is a maritime State and extends farther south than any other in 
Mexico. The great chain of the Mexican Andes crosses the State giving it some 
of the most magnificent scenery in 
the entire republic. Chains and 
ridges make a surprisingly pictur- 
esque and beautiful variety to the 
country. The most remarkable sum- 
mit is that of Zempoaltepec, in the 
district of Villata, which rises to an 
elevation of eleven thousand five 
hundred and forty-two feet, and from 
the top of which may be had mag- 
nificent views of the country, with 
glimpses of both the Atlantic and 
the Pacific Oceans. The climate of 
Oaxaca is in general very salubrious, 
for, although it is nearer the equator 
than other states, its high mountain- 
ous altitudes give it healthful breezes. 
Besides its vast mining resources the 
agricultural possibilities of Oaxaca 
are practically limitless. All the 
products of the temperate zone are 
raised in great abundance, while the 
more profitable ones of the torrid 
zone abound. The cacao raised here 

is the best in the world, while the annual yield of cochineal is about five hun- 
dred thousand pounds. The cultivation of fruit is one of the most profitable 
enterprises. There are various fibrous plants such as maguey, ramie, and the 
sisal hemp. These plants require no care, some of them being used as hedges 
to divide fields or estates. The government encourages foreign enterprise and 
favors colonists in every way, including exemption from taxation for a period 
of ten years; freedom from import duties on all goods, machinery, building 



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STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ. 



342 



MEXICO 



material or cattle coming into the country for their use, and exemption from 

military service. 

Waterpowers are countless. The many in use driving large factories or 

producing electric light and power for the cities and mines. 

Before the Spanish rule, Oaxaca was the source of much mineral wealth, 

the native records indicating this region as the principal source of the precious 

metals. 

Many of these old workings have been reopened in the last few years, a 

smelter has been erected in Oaxaca City and many reduction works have been 

built in the mining country. The ores 
contain gold and silver, copper and silver, 
and copper. 

Although Oaxaca is practically an 
agricultural state, there are a great many 
manufactures. 

The State and especially the Valley 
of Oaxaca and its tributaries are rich in 
subjects for research and have never had 
the attention their importance demands. 
The city is two hundred and eighty- 
eight miles south of the capital of the 
republic and a mile above sea level. It 
was founded in 1486, under the name of 
Huaxyacac and fell under the Spanish 
rule in 1528. It has a rapidly increasing 
population of forty thousand. The streets 
are regularly laid out, wide and spacious, 
and the houses are handsome and sub- 
stantial. The principal buildings are the 
Cathedral, the Santuario de la Soledad, 
and other churches and convents gor- 
geously decorated. 
There are also the Cabildo, or city hall, the Episcopal Palace, the govern- 
ment buildings, and several handsome plazas, embellished with flowers, trees, 

and fountains. 




STATUE OF GENERAL ANTONIO DE LEON. 



O AX AC A 



343 



The surrounding country is remarkably picturesque, being literally covered 
with flower gardens and cochineal groves. The hospital in Oaxaca is one of 
the best in Mexico. The city is extremely pleasant. Its houses are white 




FACADE OF THE CASINO. 



and on the balconies every day may be seen groups of young people well- 
dressed and cheerful, giving a festive air to the whole city. The government 
palace is magnificent, recalling the splendor of the edifices of the time of 
the viceroys. 

In the Plaza de Armas is a monument to the patriot Juarez, one of the most 
elegant in Mexico. The park of Guadalupe is very delightful, large and stately 
with flowers and groves of trees. 

There are a great many schools in Oaxaca, including the Scientific Institute, 
Seminary, Historical Museum, Public Library and many private institutions. 
There are Official Schools for primary instruction for boys and girls, and more 
than five hundred schools supported by the government. 



344 



MEXICO 



As always in Mexico, the churches present many points of. interest. The 
Cathedral, begun in 1553, and completed two centuries later, was one of the 
grandest erected by the Spaniards and ranked with those of Mexico City and 
Puebla. But it has suffered so many bombardments and been looted so fre- 
quently that little of its former glory remains. Only the fagade, beautifully 
decorated with sculptures by unrecorded artists, attests the original splendor. 
All the valuable paintings, statuary and ornaments that once made gorgeous the 
interior have disappeared. 

The church of Santo Domingo, with monastery attached, tells a similar 
tale. Built at a cost of thirteen million dollars on a most massive scale, the 

strength of its walls made 
of it a fortress whose stra- 
tegic importance is well 
attested by the scars made 
by shot and shell. The 
interior, however, has not 
been altogether despoiled. 
An authority on ecclesias- 
tical art, writing of this 
church, says, "The inte- 
rior is one of the most 
splendid in Mexico, the 
most superb example of 
baroque decoration in the 
country. The walls and 
the great barrel-arched 
ceiling are covered in every 
part with heavily-gilded 
ornaments and polychrome 
. sculpture in high relief. 
The effect is one of inde- 
scribable splendor. The 
scheme of decoration in the 
domed vaulting of the organ-loft ceiling may be compared to an enormous 
tree, extending in all directions its branches and its innumerable leaves of gold, 




STAIRWAY IN THE INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE. 



OAXACA 



345 



between which appear the busts of saints diminishing in size as the height 
increases until at the apex only the faces are shown." 




STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ, ON THE MOUNTAIN OVERLOOKING HIS NATIVE CITY. 



Several times when churches were being looted it was proposed by parties 
in possession to scrape the wonderful decorations from this ceiling to recover 
the gold used therein, but somehow the work was never attempted, the pillagers 
contenting themselves with the pictures, statuary, altar ornaments, which could 
be more readily seized. The monastery itself was reduced to bare walls and is 
now used as a barracks. 

Other buildings worthy of inspection are the State House, Federal Building, 
and the Public Library containing fourteen thousand volumes, in which are 
found many old manuscripts relating to the period of the Conquest. 

These buildings and the residences of Oaxaca impress one as being more dis- 
tinctively of Moorish design than those in other cities. 1 1 would seem as if the note 
struck by the early builders had been held by all their successors. Having this im- 
pression, the modernity of the trolley cars and electric lights brings a curious feeling 
of anachronism which may easily be enhanced by a visit to the ruins of Mitla. 



346 



MEXICO 



Not far from the City is the big tree. of Tule. It is one hundred and fifty- 
four and a half feet around, six feet from the ground. It takes forty men to 
reach around it. It is of the cypress family and must have been there long 
before Columbus touched the western shores. On the tree is a tablet placed there 
by Humboldt. 

Through three centuries of its history Oaxaca has grown as an interior 
town, in the full sense of the term. It lies in one of the most beautiful and 
fertile valleys of Mexico, or rather at the meeting point of three valleys. It 
is shut off from the ocean on the south by a solid range of mountains; it is 
separated from the cities of Central Mexico on the north by a range of rough 
and broken country. 

Next in importance to the capital among the cities of the State is Tehuante- 
pec, with its twelve thousand inhabitants. It is inland about twenty miles from 
the Pacific Ocean and is most noteworthy sociologically. Here was the home, 

the chief fastness, of the Zapotec people 
and here live to-day the purest-blooded 
descendants of that race. The women 
show a strong and noble people and they 
are distinguished for beauty of face and' 
symmetry of form. Tehuantepec was 
the base of supplies for General Diaz 
when he was opposing the French inva- 
sion and his fort is still one of the sights 
of the town. There are some splendid 
hot spirngs of efficacy for the cure of 
rheumatism, and also many interesting 
sights of local color. 

The Isthmus is that narrow neck of 
land in tropical Mexico which lies be- 
tween parallels eighteen degrees and six- 
teen degrees N., dividing the Atlantic 
and Pacific waters. The shortest trans- 
continental railroad on this hemisphere 
is built there and its trains run across in about six hours. It is not only a 
magnificent and beautiful country, but has also the most delightful tropical 




SENOR L1C. EMILIO PIMENTEL, GOVERNOR 
OF OAXACA. 



O AX AC A 



2>A1 




climate. Twice the United States government spent a great deal of time 
and money making a survey across that neck of land with a view of cutting a 
canal; once in 1852, and again in 1871, when Captain Shufeldt, of the United 
States Navy, was sent with 
a large expedition to make 
surveys. Again, Captain 
Eads spent a great deal of 
time there on his plan to 
build a ship railway. Now 
that the Isthmus is opened 
up by a railway and steam- 
ship communication, that 
portion of Mexico, more 
than any other, will par- 
ticipate in the wonderful 
progress Mexico is now 
making. 

The distance from 
Oaxaca to Tehuantepec is 

considerably less than from Puebla to Oaxaca. The railway connection has made 
this southern half of Mexico an outlet to the Pacific. Down the canon of Tomel- 
lin the builders have pushed their way, solving some of the most difficult prob- 
lems ever encountered in railway construction. They not only tunnelled to get a 
passage for the trains, but they bored the spurs of the mountains in three places 
to give the river new channels. The bare gray and brown and red cliffs tower 
two thousand feet above the track. Tourists journey across the United States for 
brief half hours in canon scenery; on the Mexican Southern Railway the traveller 
rides half a day through awe-inspiring gorges. The train reels down and then 
staggers up grades which are only a fraction below the legal limit of four per 
cent. The route is through masses of rock; in some places the boulders are so 
poised that it seems that a slight jarring would dislodge them. The traveller, 
when the train starts down these curves can look ahead and see the route and the 
stations an hour in advance of the schedule time. 

The completion of the Tehuantepec Railway and its opening to traffic have 
attracted much attention. The construction of the railway was a matter of 



NORMAL SCHOOL FOR WOMEN. 



348 



MEXICO 



national importance. It was carried out by the Mexican government at its 
own cost by the advice of President Diaz, who recognized its strategic value. 

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec can boast of advantages unequalled in the 
commercial world. It is connected by the Tehuantepec Railroad with the 
Atlantic and Pacific Ocean steamship facilities, making connection with every 
large market in the world. The Mexican government has expended over eighty 
millions upon the construction and equipment of the Atlantic port, Coatzacoalcos, 
now Puerto Mexico, and the Pacific port of Salina Cruz. Steamers, drawing over 
thirty feet of water, enter both ports and discharge their tremendous cargoes in 
an incredibly short time by means of great modern electric cranes and the best 
docking facilities, which the government has installed. 

Travel throughout the state is remarkably free from danger, the officials 
are uniformly kind and considerate in their treatment of strangers, gladly 




CORRIDOR OF THE INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE. 



welcoming the investor, who they know, in seeking to better his own condition, 
cannot fail to improve those with whom he is thrown in contact. 



OAXACA 349 

The State of Oaxaca is notable for having been the stronghold of the Mix- 
tecas, a race of Indians who emigrated many centuries ago from the north, and 
displacing the Chochones, occupied the state, together with Puebla and 
Guerrero. They were an intelligent and progressive race and were governed 
by independent chiefs. The Aztecs afterward subdued some of the Mixtecas 
but those of Oaxaca remained independent, and many of them still are found in 
parts of the State. Remains of their former cities, temples and fortresses show 
that they had considerable intelligence. They believed in a heaven called Sosola, 
and had sacred caves in the mountains. Probably they had something to do 
with the original Mitla. They had a distinct language with several dialects. 
A Mixtecan grammar was published in 1593 and there are still existing religious 
treatises printed in Mixtecan in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The 
Mixtecans of to-day are well-bred and quiet citizens. 

After the Conquest, Oaxaca, on the arrival of the first Viceroy, was elevated 
to the category of an intendency which character it retained until 1821. 

On the 31st of January, 1824, it was raised to the rank of a federal entity, 
and since then it has formed an integral part of the Mexican Confederation. 

It now forms one of the twenty-seven states that compose the Mexican 
Republic; free and sovereign in so far as refers to its interior management, but in 
union with the other parts of the republic in accordance with the Political Con- 
stitution of the republic of the Sth of February, 1857, together with all the 
additions and amendments thereto. 

The governor of Oaxaca, who may be considered the advance agent of 
its prosperity, has done much to attract to it the attention of foreign investors. 
Sehor Don Emilio Pimentel is a native of Oaxaca and was educated in its public 
schools, its state institute and its college of law. Sent to Congress for several 
terms he became a leader, and for a number of years afterward practised law in 
Mexico City, of which he was finally elected Mayor. His broad intelligence and 
grasp of the problems confronting the nation early attracted the notice of Presi- 
dent Diaz, whose confidence he has since enjoyed. He has been sent to Europe on 
government missions and represented Mexico in the Latin-American Congress 
at Montevideo. At one time he was offered a portfolio by President Diaz, but 
at that time his health had been broken by overwork and he was obliged to 
decline. In his law practice he represented several of the most important 
financial interests in the republic. Thus, was he fitted peculiarly to be of 



350 



MEXICO 



service to his native State when elected as its governor in 1902. Now serving 
his third term in that office he bends every effort to the promotion of the State's 
welfare. Practically, all the foreign capital now employed in Oaxaca was 
invested there at his solicitation. 

He has endeavored to give impulse to everything that means progress and 
prosperity by granting advantageous concessions to men of enterprise. To him 
is also due the development of railways in the State, the increasing network of 
tramways in the city, and the railway company to San Felipe. The capital city 
is also indebted to him for many improvements. All branches of public adminis- 
tration receive his special attention. He has organized new schools and charities 
and has appointed a commission to study the laws of primary and normal in- 
struction. The public treasury has, under his able and correct administration, 
paid all the expenses and the State is out of debt. Governor Pimentel has 
organized the rural police force and has attended to all sanitary affairs in the 
capital. He has a clean political career which promises him a brilliant future. 
Oaxaca will place his name on the golden page of its great benefactors. 




THE PORF1RIO DIAZ HIGH SCHOOL. 




THE PEAK OF ORIZABA 

CHAPTER XX 

VERA CRUZ 

THE State of Vera Cruz is one of the important states of the republic. The 
climate has a range of temperature that rises from cool and bracing to 
hot and stifling. It is pre-eminently agricultural and with the exception of rich 
fields of mineral oil, and cattle-raising, which is a lucrative source of revenue, 
the chief products of this fertile State are coffee, bananas, sugar, vanilla and 
cotton. In the northwest is the Huasteca region, the finest cattle lands on the 
continent, and in the southwest, the Sotavente district is rich in agricultural 
soil and watered by the mighty Paploapam. 

The southern part of the State is open to colonization and there are many 
foreign enterprises engaged in the principal industry of sugar making. 

The State is very liberal and progressive and under the administration of 

the present Governor, Senor Don Teodora Dehesa, port-works, water-works 

and sewers, drainage, public buildings and many other advanced ideas of reform 

have been inaugurated. 

353 



354 



MEXICO 



The Federal Quarantine Station at Vera Cruz has been declared by health 
experts as the most complete and thorough in existence. It can be now recorded 
that the entire absence of yellow fever is assured. Vera Cruz now enjoys the 
distinction of being the cleanest city in the republic. 

The City of Vera Cruz was founded in 1519, by Hernando Cortes. It was at 
one time the capital of the State, but Jalapa is now the seat of the government. 




POST OFFICE, VERA CRUZ. 



It was built in a semi-circle fronting the sea, and was formerly enclosed by a 
wall six feet high and three feet thick and defended by two redoubts on shore 
and by the Castle of San Juan de Ulua which stands on an island. The streets 
are regular and wide and form many squares, and little plazas or parks, beautiful 
in rich tropical flowers and trees which make the city very attractive. The houses 
are strongly built of coral limestone in the old Spanish style. It is an ideal spot 
for the traveler who enjoys a warm climate and beautiful sun. Old churches, 
public buildings bearing the marks of centuries, old convents that have stood 
the test of time, and beautiful modern buildings are found side by side in sublime 



VERA CRUZ 



355 




OLD GATEWAY, ORIZABA. 



contrast. The Municipal Palace 
was built in 1609, and the Public 
Library, in which are wonderful 
old volumes and archives, was 
founded in 1870. There are sev- 
eral beautiful churches, theatres, 
hospitals, an artillery school, and 
a new post office. 

The lately constructed port- 
works have converted the ancient 
rockbound roadstead along the 

Atlantic coast line into a safe and commodious harbor. The protected harbor 
covers fifty-four acres. The length of the breakwater is three thousand three 
hundred and thirty metres. 

The present city of Vera Cruz is not the same that was built by Cortes in 
the year 1519. The Villa Rica de Vera Cruz — " the rich town of the true cross" 

— is six miles distant from the present 
city. The inhabitants of this busy city 
are renowned for their culture, their frank 
and simple manners and their patriotism, 
of which they have given many proofs in 
the various sieges which the town has sus- 
tained against foreign foes, thus justifying 
the appelation of "heroic" given to it. 

Nowhere in Mexico is there a more 
beautiful spot than the City of Jalapa. 
When the atmosphere is clear, one can 
see the shipping in the harbor of Vera 
Cruz with an ordinary spy glass and the 
white caps of the waves with the naked 
eye. The elevation of Jalapa above the 
sea is a little more than four thousand 
feet. It is situated on a shelf of the 
mountain, the summit of which at Perote, 
indian women in the tropics. a distance in a direct line of about twenty 




356 



MEXICO 



miles, is four thousand five hundred feet higher than Jalapa. The whole hori- 
zon, except in the direction of Vera Cruz, is bounded by mountains — among 
them Orizaba, distant from Jalapa about twenty-five miles, though owing to 

the clearness of the atmosphere and 
the sun shining upon the snow with 
which it is covered it appears to 
be much nearer. All the tropical 
fruits grow in the district, and are 
cultivated with great care and skill. 
It is not an exaggeration to say that 
it is impossible for one who has not 
been on the tableland of Mexico to 
conceive of a climate so elysian. 

Jalapa is indeed a rare old 
place. It seems to be built on edge, 
with streets like stairs climbing the 
hills, while terraced houses cling to 
the hillsides. 

Orizaba lies about midway be- 
tween the two extremes of the coast 
and the plateau. It is one of the 
busiest manufacturing towns of 
Mexico. It is on the line of the 
oldest railway in the country, within 
easy access of the interior cities. 
The town of Coatzacoalcos is at the mouth of the river of the same name, 
and is one of the few places that look like an American town. It is growing 
rapidly and has the second finest port-works on the continent. 

On the Mexican Railroad, Cordoba, nestling under the shadow of the snow- 
capped peak of Orizaba is a tropical refuge for many travelers seeking sun- 
shine. Fruits, flowers, palms and ferns grow in abundance. In this tropical 
part of Mexico one finds many beautiful pictures that would look almost unreal 
if painted on canvas. 

The red-brown coloring of the Indians in their costumes and the half-naked 
children basking in the sun or enjoying the shade of the verdant palms, and the 




NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS. JALAPA. 



VERA CRUZ 



357 



perfume of the flowers that per- 
meates the atmosphere almost 
transport one with enthusiasm 
and enjoyment. 

In Cordoba grows the finest 
coffee in the world. The love- 
liest scene on Nature's canvas is 
a coffee plantation. The leaves 
of the plant are a very dark green, 
the flowers white and freighted 
with a rich aromatic incense, and 
the berries are deep red. This bean is cultivated with great care. The shrub is 
graceful and drooping and the flower is as sweet as the orange blossom. 

The State of Vera Cruz is rapidly gaining fame for the variety, beauty and 
sublimity of its scenic attractions. 

The Castle of San Juan de Ulua, which was the last foothold of the Spaniards 
in Mexico, was surrendered by them to the patriots in 1825. In 1838, Vera 




PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR SALAZAR. 




THE HARBOR. VERA CRUZ. 



358 



MEXICO 



Cruz was bombarded and taken by the French and again in 1847, by the Amer- 
icans, under General Scott. It was surrendered to the allied British, French and 
Spanish squadron in December, 1861, and was restored to Mexico in 1867. 

The experience of three Mexican Revolutions makes it easier to conceive 
the extent to which this unfortunate city must have suffered in the struggle made 
by the Spaniards to preserve the Castle, their last bulwark on this continent. 
San Juan de Ulua remains a lasting memorial of the great works which, almost 
immediately after their arrival on these shores, were undertaken by the Spanish 
conquerors. 




OLD FORT OF SANTIAGO. 




TAMESI RIVER FRONT. TAMPICO. 



CHAPTER XXI 



TAMAULIPAS 



TAMAULIPAS derives its name from a tribe of Indians which formerly in- 
habited this region. It is one of the closest Mexican neighbors of Texas 
and is one of the richest agricultural and mineral states in the republic. 

Bordering on Texas on the north, with the Gulf of Mexico on the eastern 
boundary and the tropical states of Vera Cruz and San Luis Potosi on the south, 
and Nuevo Leon on the west, Tamaulipas is one of the most accessible of the 
Mexican states and equal in size to many of the western states of her northern 
neighbor. The principal cities of the State are Ciudad Victoria, the capital, 
Tampico, the great Gulf port, Matamoros, historically located just across the 
Rio Grande from Brownsville, Texas. A majestic mountain range, the Sierra 
Madre, enters the State in the southern end and runs through it in a north- 
easterly direction penetrating into the neighboring state of Nuevo Leon. The 
Sierra Madre running from east to west, covered with thick forests, rises to a high 
altitude, and is cut in all directions by deep gorges and ravines and protrudes' 

its massive spurs east and west into various important chains. The mountains 

359 



360 



MEXICO 



are rich in minerals and the mineral development of the State is in its infancy. 
It has an area of twenty-eight thousand six hundred and fifty-nine square miles 
and a population considerably above two hundred thousand. 

The coast is low and sandy and there are several lagoons along the shore, 
the largest of which, Laguna Madre, is over one hundred miles long and in some 
parts over twenty miles wide. The principal rivers of this State are the Fer- 
nando, Borbon, Santander and Tampico. In the northern part the flat coast 

lands extend inward for many miles 
and then rise to elevated plains; in the 
south the country is diversified by many 
mountains and valleys and the scenery 
is very picturesque. There are rich 
silver and copper mines which promise 
great and undiscovered wealth. Valua- 
ble timber abounds on the mountains; 
the soil is fertile, and all the fruits, 
grains and vegetables of the temperate 
and torrid zones are easily raised. This 
is also an excellent State for stock- 
raising of all kinds. 

Tamaulipas was originally named 
Santa Anna de Tamaulipas. In area, 
richness of soil and variety of climate, 
the State is one of the most important 
in Mexico. Its location is naturally 
excellent. In the long stretches of 
flat lands of the Tierra Caliente; there are rivers with many branches which 
reach out in every direction. 

Senor Don Juan de Castillo has been the distinguished governor for the past 
ten years. He has devoted his energies to the development of all enterprises 
in his State. He encourages colonization and gives financial aid and concessions 
which promise to develop the resources of Tamaulipas. During his administra- 
tion many new schools have been opened in the country districts and he has 
given special attention to the extension of education throughout the State. In 
the larger cities new school buildings have been erected, embodying all modern 




SENOR DON JUAN B. CASTILLO. GOVERNOR 
OF TAMAULIPAS. 



TAMAULIPAS 



361 



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AVENIDA PRIETO, SHOWING GOVERNOR'S PALACE. VICTORIA. 



ideas. Governor Castillo has caused improvement in sanitary conditions and 
the State is now free from epidemics which threatened it in the past. 

The general interest 
shown on the part of for- 
eign capitalists and the ad- 
vantages offered to investors 
have resulted in the forming 
of several good colonies. 

There are many fertile 
valleys well watered and 
free from the malarial dis- 
eases which afflict the hot 
lands. These lands are 
still very cheap and suit- 
able for colonization. 

Ciudad Victoria, the capital city, is situated in a beautiful and healthful 
locality. It is well built and has splendid palaces and public buildings, hospitals 
and good schools. There is a normal training school for teachers, a primary 
normal school, the state institute and a law school; another school which does 

excellent work is the Juan 
Jose de la Gaza Institute. 
The state legislature has 
made extension of all pub- 
lic roads. The city has 
many beautiful parks and 
monuments. 

No sections of the re- 
public are receiving greater 
evidence of the influx of 
capital and the stream of 
immigration than the Gulf 
ports. With the natural 
advantages of location, harbor and transportation facilities, the port and city of 
Tampico are of the greatest commercial importance. 

Tampico is built upon a rocky bluff forty feet high, surrounded by lagoons 




PLAZA JUAREZ. VICTORIA. 



362 



MEXICO 



of salt water. The architecture of Tampico is more American than most Mexican 
towns display, owing, doubtless, to its ready communication with other northern 
ports. The houses are built both of wood and stone, with sloping roofs and outer 
verandas. Color prevails everywhere, the houses being painted in blues and 
yellows, each street looking fresh, bright and clean and especially so the brilliant 
facades clustering about the plaza. The latter is a densely shaded park paved with 
granite and provided with seats. No flowers grow in this plaza but the house- 
holders around it seem to vie with one another in window and veranda gardening. 
All the houses have balconies on the street-front with rows of blossoming orchids 




PLAZA DE ARMAS, TAMPICO. 



and amaryllis along the walls. Just out of Tampico may be found thousands 
of orchids growing wild, hanging thick on the seaward side of the rocks, where 
the tropical sun and perpetual moisture give them a most luxurious growth. 

Then there is a wonderful old church with ancient wood-carving and fres- 
coes by Spanish artists. It is a strange mixture of old and new that is met at 
every turn in Tampico; the jetties built out from the mouth of the Panuco 
seven thousand feet into the Gulf are, perhaps, the most interesting of all. 
These jetties have great banks of stone with easy slopes and rounded tops like 
those at the mouth of the Maas in Holland. The sand-bar which once obstructed 
this harbor has entirely disappeared and now the inland harbor of Tampico is 
one of the most important on the American continent. 



TAMA U LI PAS 



363 



Approaching ships pass into calm water between two great jetties extending 
a mile out into the Gulf and on through a wide channel kept constantly open and 
deepening by the current of the great Panuco River and its tributaries, which 
drain a watershed of thousands of square miles and discharge their waters into 
the Gulf of Mexico through the entrance to the harbor. These jetties, built by 
the Mexican Government, are constructed of stone of a superior quality secured 
from the mountains of the interior. Constant additions are being made to them 
and plans are now under consideration which will result in further extension. 




A FIELD OF ZAPUPE. 



The Panuco River is at this point the dividing line between the State of Vera 
Cruz on the south and that of Tamaulipas on the north. Just as a ship reaches the 
actual mouth of the river the government lighthouse may be seen to the best 
advantage looming up on the horizon on the Tamaulipas side. 

Upon the bluff sloping gently to the sea level is an ideal residence section over- 
looking the harbor and the system of surrounding water ways, whose shores lined 
with tropical trees and vegetation combine to form a most beautiful landscape. 

The Mexican Central Railway furnishes the best transportation facilities to 
Tampico, one branch running west to Aguascalientes on the main line and tapping 
the great mining and agricultural centres. Along this route some of the best 
agricultural lands of Mexico are traversed. To the north another branch of 



364 



MEXICO 




TARPON CAUGHT BY THE OFFICERS OF THE BRITISH 
CRUISER BRILLIANT. 



the Mexican Central connects Tampico with all Texas points via Monterey. 
The Mexican Central makes a direct connection with the National capital. 

Running direct between Tampico 
and Vera Cruz, Progreso and 
Puerto Mexico are two steamers 
doing a coastwise trade. 

The good climate, the sea 
bathing, the excellent tarpon fish- 
ing and hunting make Tampico 
the most attractive winter and 
summer resort on the Gulf Coast. 
As one walks through the office 
and lobby of the Southern Hotel 
and sees the specimens of large 
fish which are hanging on the walls 
at various points it is easy to 
realize the importance of the industry which the proprietor of the hotel, Mr. A. 
N. Poindexter, has built up in this line. 

Only a few years ago the tarpon banks near Tampico were known by very 
few people, but Mr. Poindexter recognized that this was a sportsman's paradise 
and began in a small way to make known to those of his guests who were inter- 
ested in such sports the possibilities of real active sport, with a little touch of 
adventure in it, and to-day many distinguished people from all parts of the world, 
visit this port for the sole purpose of tarpon fishing and wild-fowl shooting. 

Within a radius of one hundred and fifty miles of Tampico there are fifteen 
American colonies being located at Atascagor, La Palma, Columbus, Colonia 
Americana, Alta Vista, Quaker City, Chamal, San Diegurto, and other small 
colonies. Many of them are settling rapidly and have established good schools 
and churches. They are employed in agriculture and many other enterprises. 

In this State are found various seams of coal and many mineral deposits. 
Among the metals that are found in the State are copper, silver, gold, lead, zinc 
and iron. The oil wells of Tamaulipas are already famous. The oil belt reaches 
into the State of Vera Cruz and will be found all along the State of Tamaulipas, 
as far as Texas. Prominent oil experts predicted that this State would become 
one of the greatest oil-producing sections in Mexico. 



TAMAULIPAS 



365 




The cultivation of the zapupe fibre plant has received most attention in 
the Tampico section. Within the last three years several companies have been 
formed for the cultivation of zapupe near Tampico and in addition a number of 
individuals are engaged in 
planting the fibre. It is 
claimed that zapupe ma- 
tures more quickly, that it 
produces more fibre to the 
plant than henequen. 

In Victoria and vicin- 
ity, about one hundred miles 
north of Tampico, henequen 
growing is receiving much 
attention. Land not fit for 
any other kind of culti- 
vation seems to be well plaza, victoria. 
adapted for henequen. 

During the Civil War in the United States, 1861-1865, Tamaulipas made a 
handsome income by raising cotton and exporting it to that country. Many 
farmers became rich in that way; but when the war was over, and cotton fell 
in price with the return of peace and the revival of the southern states, the pro- 
duction declined. There is no reason why Tamaulipas should not grow cotton 
as abundantly as the State of Vera Cruz. 

Matamoros is a frontier city of Tamaulipas, being only forty miles from the 
mouth of the Rio Grande, and directly opposite the City of Brownsville, Texas. 
It has a population of over twelve thousand, made up mostly of Americans and 
people of Spanish descent. English is commonly spoken. The City is finely situ- 
ated on a bend of the river. Its wide streets cross at right angles, and the houses , 
are mostly of brick and built in modern style. There is a beautiful Cathedral as 
well as numerous churches and convents. There is a good public school system, 
besides plenty of private schools. The climate is hot from April to September, 
and cool from December to March. Matamoros was founded early in the last 
century, and was named after the great patriot, Marino Matamoros, whose bones 
lie with those of Hidalgo and Morelos in the Cathedral at Mexico City. 

Laredo is a name by which one of the lines of the Condes of Spain was called. 



366 



MEXICO 



A Royal Commission called "Vista General" in 1767 laid out the town, giving 
it four leagues of land, two on each side of the Rio Grande, and laid off above 
and below the town tract on both sides, the tract now called Porciones, dis- 
tributing it to the settlers. Since that time Laredo has been recognized 
as a town with municipal powers. In the earlier days of its existence, savage 
Indians continually committed depredations on the surrounding country and 
robbed the people of their horses and cattle; but the citizens, inured to such 
hardships, often chastised the savages and killed many of them in battle, always 
maintaining a justly merited reputation for skill, courage and gallantry. Laredo 
was a kind of supply station during the Texas revolution, but took no very active 
part in the war. It remained under the control of Mexico as a part of Tamau- 
lipas until 1846, when it was divided into two towns, Nuevo Laredo on the Mexi- 
can side remaining a quiet, progressive town, whose principal industry has been 
stock raising, — horses, cattle, and sheep; and several handsome fortunes have 
been made in it. 

The Tamaulipas Mexicans are brave, daring patriots, who are zealous to a 
man for the integrity and independence of their country. This State gave the 
nucleus of the heroic army of the north during the French campaign and the stoic 
bravery of the Tamaulipan soldiers will never be forgotten in the history of the 
siege and fall of Queretaro; many of their illustrious names will ever stand for 
the bravest and most inflexible of patriots. 




TAMPICO PLAZA. 




JUAREZ MARKET, SALTILLO. 

CHAPTER XXII 

COAHUILA 



COAHUI LA is a highly productive State. It is a hilly and mountainous coun- 
try, but its valleys are very fertile. Minerals are found extensively but the 
most important product in this State is coal, which is being shipped to all parts of 
the country. The Rio Grande separates it from the United States of America, 
on the east it is bounded by the State of Nuevo Leon, on the west by the States 
of Chihuahua and Durango and on the south by Zacatecas, Nuevo Leon, and San 
Luis Potosi. It embraces an area of one hundred and sixty-five thousand and 
ninety-nine square kilometres. Its population is about two hundred and ninety- 
seven thousand. Its capital, Saltillo, is an industrial and mercantile centre. 

The other chief city, Torreon, founded as recently as 1887, is a commercial 
emporium of the greatest importance. Cotton and all classes of cereals and fruits 
are the chief products. The wines of Parras, which is a great grape cultivating 
country, are famed throughout the entire republic and the best woods grown in 

the country are found in these parts. 

369 



370 



MEXICO 



The City of Monclova, which was for a long time the capital of the State, is 
also of commercial importance. 

The governor of the State is Sehor Licenciado Don Jesus de Valle, is an illus- 
trious and progressive gentleman, experienced and well-versed in political and 
administrative science, who knows so well all the branches of State government. 
Since taking office he has diminished the public debt and caused many reforms 
in the capital and in the neighboring cities, and through his encouragement 
colonists are welcome and all kinds of franchises are granted to those whose pur- 
pose is the establishment of enterprises that will revert to the good of the people 
and the country. With splendid irrigation facilities and all the advantages 
of a rich country, Coahuila is an open field for future prosperity. 

Saltillo is reached by the Mexican National Railroad. It was founded in 
1586, and incorporated as a city in 1827. The government palace, the Church of 
Santiago, and the old convent of San Esteban are the chief edifices of interest. The 
climate is good, the city being a delightful resort at all seasons. The "Coahuila " 
is one of the most beautiful hotels in the republic and enjoys great popularity. 

Many of the hostelries in Mexico are old 
private dwellings or palaces which are to 
a certain extent picturesque, but this 
modern hotel offers encouragement to 
the seeker of health and pleasure. 

The Plaza de la Independencia is a 
modern park, very attractive with its 
beautiful flowers and ferns. The Cathe- 
dral is an imposing structure filled with 
beautiful paintings and priceless altars. 
The new penitentiary is one of the finest 
of its kind in the country. Hospitals, 
public libraries and the finest normal 
school in the republic are the results of 
the enterprise and progress of the State. 
Some of these educational establishments 
are noted for their handsome architec- 
ture. Special attention is paid to the 
sanitary conditions of the school houses. 




SENOR LICENCIADO DON JESUS DE VALLE, 
GOVERNOR OF COAHUILA. 



COAHUILA 



371 



There are many philan- 
thropic societies and charit- 
able institutions: one of the 
most important is the asy- 
lum of the Immaculate 
Conception. 

The many brightly col- 
ored serapes, which are 
hand-woven and form one 
of the industries of this city, 
cannot be duplicated, and 
all the factories of the re- 
public are making strenuous 
efforts to imitate those made 
here. The Delft blue shade, 
which is noted all over the 
world, is no longer made 
here as it has become a lost 
art, but other colors most 
artistically and intricately 
woven mark one of the chief 
features of the native craft. 

Some of the finest pleasure resorts on the continent are found here. The 
famous Hot Springs are at Hermanas. Here are the largest springs of hot min- 
eral water in America, that flowing out of the hillside form a river of hot clear 
water which passes through a fine grove of trees. The natural temperature of the 
water is one hundred and ten degrees Fahrenheit. With unexcelled scenery, the 
climate is invigorating and the splendid conditions make it a great health resort. 

The construction of the Mexican I nternational Railroad was a very important 
event in the State of Coahuila. It penetrated a country rich in resources where 
splendid inducements to the miner, manufacturer and agriculturist are offered. 
The prosperous condition of various enterprises situated adjacent to the line of 
this road testifies beyond question to the practicability of profitable investment. 

Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, named in honor of the President of the republic, is 
one of the most enterprising of the Mexican border-towns. The custom house 




GOVERNMENT PALACE, SALTILLO. 



372 



MEXICO 



and post office buildings, including other federal offices are splendid specimens 
of modern architecture. 

' Coahuila has attained commendable progress under the able administration 
of Governor Jesus de Valle. The State has given to the Mexican nation many 
men distinguished in politics, in war and in science. Some of these were Don 
Melchor Muzquiz, who became president ad interim and from whom the city of 
Muzquiz gets its name; General Ignacio Zaragoza, hero of the glorious victory 
of the national army over the French on the 5th of May, 1862, in Puebla, and 
from whom the State receives the name of Coahuila de Zaragoza; Don Miguel 
Ramos Arizpe, statesman, who was a deputy to the Court of Spain in 1812, and 
on account of his idea in favor of independence was eleven years a prisoner, until 
the Declaration of Independence; he was one of the deputies to the Constitu- 
tional Congress in 1824, and Minister of the State; Don Juan Antonio de la 
Fuente caused a law to be made for the separation of the church and state in 
1858; he was also minister plenipotentiary from Mexico to France and England 
and figured prominently in France by his indignant protest against the Preradi- 
cal Interference of Napoleon III., on Mexican Territory. Here was born Manuel 
Acuha, one of the most notable and sublime writers which Mexico produced in 
the nineteenth century. 




STATE CIVIL COLLEGE. SALTILLO. 




GOVERNOR'S PALACE, MONTEREY. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



NEUVA LEON, SAN LUIS POTOSI, 
AGUASCALIENTES 



THE kingdom of Nuevo Leon was once the name of the State of Nuevo Leon. 
It is inland, bordering on Tamaulipas, Coahuila and San Luis Potosi. Its 
surface is irregular, as several branches of the Sierra Madre Range come into it 
and one-fourth of the State forms a part of the great central tableland of Mexico. 

Mineral productions abound in the mountains. The climate is perfect. 
The atmosphere is seldom chilled with frost but sometimes it steals in at long 
intervals like a thief in the night to disappear in the darkness ere the sun has 
risen. Snow is unknown in the Valley of Monterey and is seen rarely on the 
peaks of the mountains which surround the city. 

The Topo Chico hot springs are in the suburbs. This is a famous health 
resort. The thermometer never descends to freezing point and the condition of 
the atmosphere permits the weakest and most delicate invalid to promenade in 
the plazas. 

Monterey is fifteen hundred feet above sea level ; it is one of the oldest cities 

but has been made over and has now all sorts of modern improvements. Nature 

373 



374 



MEXICO 



is vested in gladness expressed by beauty and wealth of color, over which flows 
the mellow radiance of a semi-tropical sunshine. It is surrounded by some of 
the most beautiful mountain scenery in the world. The houses are well-built 
and tasteful both in architecture and interior decorations. The Casino is the 
principal club. 

Honorable Philip C. Hanna, the American consul general, has endeared 
himself to the people of Monterey. He was appointed the special representative 
of the American Red Cross and did a notable work during the flood which came 
near destroying Monterey in 1909. At the Consulate he protected hundreds of 
the unfortunate, giving food and clothing to the desolate in the flooded district. 

Monterey is only a few hours ride from Laredo, in Texas. 1 1 is a very Amer- 
ican city, with splendid churches, schools and manufacturing establishments. 

SAN LUIS POTOSI 

No country is more beautiful in its picturesque vegetation and useful pro- 
ducts than San Luis Potosi. There the highest trees give support to a multi- 
tude of creeping vines and to a swarm of vegetable parasites which create an 




PLAZA ZARAGOZA. 



agreeable confusion and form obscure thickets where the foot of man has 
never yet penetrated. The multitude of color, the green leaves and the divers 



NEUVA LEON, SAN LUIS POTOSI, AGUASCALIENTES 375 

hues of the flowers, with a half-light produced in many places by the shade of 
the trees, allowing an occasional vista of purest blue sky; the silence of the 




PALACE OF GOVERNOR, SAN LUIS POTOSI. 



bosks at certain hours of the day; the harmonious songs of the birds at the rising 
and the setting of the sun, are all poetical, and invite to meditation and the adora- 
tion of the Author and source of so many marvels. The entire State is a gem 
of varied beauty. 

In the towns to the southeast and east of the capital there are lands well 
adapted for agriculture. The enterprise directed to this class of work will find 
there every kind of products which temperate and torrid climates know, not 
only in cereals and fibre-bearing plants, but also in fruits and hard woods. In 
all portions of the State Indian corn is cultivated as well as wheat and beans, 
all most useful as food for the inhabitants; but the branches of agriculture which 
have been most developed are the cultivation of coffee and tobacco. The coffee 
plants number about four million, with a mean yield of forty thousand quintals. 

San Luis Potosi may justly lay claim to a first rank among cities of the 
Mexican Republic, whether considered from a historical, political, or commercial 



376 



MEXICO 



point of view. Founded in the days of the Spanish Conquest, the geographical 
position, some six thousand feet above the level of the sea, secured pre-eminence 
from the earliest times. The history of the city may to a great extent be read 
in its outward appearance. Grand old Spanish churches, such as that of San 
Francisco, dating from the sixteenth century, El Carmen with its two-hundred- 
year-old carvings, and the Guadalupe, with its charming sacred associations. 
The imposing French-built government palace and the Mexican cathedral, the 
old Spanish Plaza with its American tram-lines and electric lights, the old forti- 
fied mint, telling of revolutionary times, the college hospital, the library, and 
the splendid theatre, with many new and elegant buildings, speak for the pros- 
perity and advancement of the present day. 

It has always been a very busy and flourishing place, holding the same 
relation to eastern Mexico that Guadalajara holds to western Mexico. The 




CATHEDRAL. AGUASCALIENTES. 



surrounding country is a very fertile district and San Luis furnishes a ready 
market for its produce. There are many fine buildings in the capital. The 



NEUI'A LEON, SAN LUIS POTOSI, AGUASCALIENTES 377 

government palace is attractive in appearance; the cathedral shows some fine 
stone-work on its towers. There is a characteristic painting of high quality 




THE BATHS AT AGUASCALIENTES. 



in the church of El Carmen. The old church has a clock which was given by 
the King of Spain in return for the largest piece of silver ore ever taken from 
a mine. On the entrance to this beautiful sanctuary are these comforting and 
inspiring words: 

Aqui el que pede recibe, 

El que busca halla, 

Al que toca se le abre. 

("Here he who asks receives, he who seeks finds, to him who knocks it is 
opened.") 

The two tall towers of this church form the most striking feature of the city 
to the traveler approaching from the south. 

The Theatre in San Luis Potosi, one of the handsomest in Mexico, is a 
monument to the progressive spirit of the late General Carlos Diez Guitierrez, 



378 



MEXICO 



the former governor of the State. The building is of stone, massive and large. 
I mmense columns of stone and iron adorn the front. The entrance is very much 
like that of the Grand Opera in Paris. It is elegant yet massive in design. There 
is a grand and beautiful lobby which is approached by wide marble steps and 
covered by a dome of heavy stained glass. Seen from below, this last has a mag- 
nificent appearance with a huge balcony winding around in the interior, with 
a heavy iron railing. This is entered above by beautiful glass doors, opening 
from an immense hall, large enough for a ball-room, with marble-tiled floors. 
The stage has all the latest improvements, and the whole theatre is a noble 
example of what taste can do when backed by immense wealth. The gov- 
ernor's private box, facing the stage, is magnificently fitted up, with the coat- 
of-arms of the State in silver and bronze. 

The law requires that all houses shall be kept freshly painted, so that the 
city is bright in every quarter. The markets are particularly interesting, with 
picturesque water-carriers, many fountains and novel scenes. The statue of 

Hidalgo formerly 
occupied the Plaza 
de Armas, but has 
been removed to a 
more important 
place and a kiosk 
erected in its place. 
When the evenings 
are warm, as most 
of them are in San 
Luis, the Plaza 
presents a most 
attractive appear- 
ance with families 
promenading to 
the gay music 
under the silvery 
light of the moon 

or the more brilliant radiance of the electric light. This historic city has the 
record that here was made the first discovery of silver in Mexico, which went 




STREETS SCENE IN AGUASCALIENTES. 



NEW A LEON, SAN LUIS POTOSI, AGUASCALIENTES 379 

so far as to found the country's greatness. The tradition is that early in the 
sixteenth century an Indian was climbing the San Luis hills, when his foot slipped 
and to save himself he clutched at a neighboring bush, which giving way 
beneath his weight, was up- 
rooted and exposed to view 
the native silver beneath. 

San Luis is far ad- 
vanced in education. 
There are many magnifi- 
cent schools. In the School 
of Arts and Trades for 
Girls are taught English 
and French. There are 
civil and military schools, 
and hospitals, all of which 
are supported by the gov- 
ernment. 

The governor of this State is Jose Maria Espinosa y Cuevas. The success 
of the opening of the port at Tampico gave San Luis Potosi commercial advant- 
ages equal if not superior to those of any other city in the Republic of Mexico. 

In the northern part of the State is the mining town of Catorce, "The 
Silver City. " These mines were discovered by a group of fourteen bandits and 
are the most celebrated in Mexico. 



I 



THE BISHOP'S PALACE, MONTEREY. 



AGUASCALIENTES 

Aguascalientes though one of the smallest is one of the most interesting 
States in Mexico. The eastern district consists of tablelands six thousand feet 
above sea-level and the western portion includes the Sierras of Laurel and Pinal, 
spurs of the Sierra Madre. The tablelands produce abundant crops of cereals. 
The capital is Aguascalientes, which means hot waters. It is an attractive city, 
noted for its hot springs, well-appointed bath houses and healthful climate. 

One of the most celebrated and well-attended fairs of the republic, the Feast 
of San Marcos, is held at Aguascalientes in April of each year and thousands 
of people from all parts of the country throng the streets and plazas of this 
quaint old city. There are many special attractions notably the beautiful 



380 



MEXICO 



needle-drawn work which is made by the Indians and excels in beauty the cele- 
brated Fayal work which is so much better known. 

The city takes its name from the warm mineral springs in its neighborhood. 
The baths are reached by long avenues of superb cottonwood trees. They are 
built of soft red stone and are much frequented. On one side through a canal 
flows the surplus water from the springs, which is used for bathing by those who 
are unable to pay the small charge for the baths. 

There is a handsome alameda. The country around is fertile and highly 
cultivated. In the tropical altitudes of Mexico and in the hot spring sections 
there is a sort of Egyptian disregard of the conventionalities in attire and the 
disposition to take a daily fashion hint from the Garden of Eden, the children 
disregarding even the fig leaf. 

The water-carrier of Cairo is much like his brother of Mexico. The groups 
about the fountains all over the republic have long earthen jars of pottery borne 
by the women and balanced on the shoulders of the men and look very oriental. 

The climate is healthful and is noted for its constant sunshine. Many 
invalids go there from the north. It is half way between the City of Mexico and 
the northern border. 




TEMPLE OF SAN MARCOS, AGUASCALIENTES. 




THE FEDERAL PALACE, QUERETARO. 




CONVENT OF THE CROSS WHERE MAXIMILIAN WAS IMPRISONED. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



QUERETARO 



QUERETARO is a State around which has been cast a spirit of romance. 
The interest that centres here is great on account of it being the scene 
of many tragic events. Many famous men and women who have figured in the 
history of Mexico were born here. It was in this State that the first steps 
toward independence were taken and the efforts of the patriot Hidalgo to incite 
the people to open rebellion found ready response. 

It occupies a part of the Cordilleran Plateau and while it contains much 
fertile land it is traversed by numerous mountains. In these, many minerals 
are found. Gold silver, lead, copper, antimony, quicksilver and tin abound, 
and fine forests of timber and precious woods are the product of the mountains. 
Extensive fields of all kinds of grains, sugar and tobacco are cultivated. 

Many lakes, such as the Cerro Grande, the Concha, the San Cillo and the 
Saledon, lend natural beauty to nature's already prolific endowment. 

The mining in this State is very promising, the regions are among the 

richest in Mexico. Precious and semi-precious stones abound. Owing to the 

extremely mountainous country it is difficult to operate many of the mines, but 

new railways and modes of transportation are eliminating that drawback. 

383 



384 MEXICO 

The chief city and capital is Queretaro, one of the most beautiful in the 
republic, situated one hundred and ten miles northwest of Mexico on a plateau 
six thousand feet above sea level. It occupies the sides and summits of several 
hills and is separated from the picturesque little suburbs by a small river. It is 
ah old city dating back to 1400, and is famous for its beautiful churches, the 
splendid architecture of the public buildings and dwellings, and also is of inter- 
esting historical value on account of the tragic ending of Maximilian, the erst- 
while Emperor of Mexico, who was executed on the " Hill of the Bells. " 

To one who sees the capital for the first time, it has a great fascination. 
There is something different about the architecture, the atmosphere, and even 
the sun seems to shine brighter here. Palms and bananas grow in the open 
squares, and the many churches with their melodious chimes ringing at almost 
all hours lend it an influence that is delightful. 

Napoleon took upon himself the task of exporting an Emperor to Mexico, 
Maximilian of Austria, a dreamer imbued with the idea of the divine rights of 
kings. He listened to the seductive assurances of an emperor who himself had 
secured the right to rule by rapine and blood. Carlota was ambitious, an ardent 
Catholic, and the Pope gave the new rulers consecration and his blessing. The 
United States government put sixty thousand troops into Texas on the Mexican 
border and then Napoleon was told in unmistakable language that the French 
troops that sustained Maximilian must be withdrawn. Maximilian was advised 
to abdicate, and would have done so but for the proud and ambitious Carlota. 
She volunteered to go to France to intercede with Napoleon. He was deaf to 
her entreaties, and she then fled to the' Pope for relief, but with no better 
success. Repulsed, her finely-strung nature succumbed and she became bereft 
of her reason, perhaps the best surcease, except death, from the humiliation, 
the defeat, and the greater grief that were to follow. 

Maximilian with a few thousand troops was shut within the city. On the 
night of May 19, 1867, the city was captured, and he was tried and condemned 
to be shot, together with his two trusted Generals, Mejia and Miramon. The 
execution took place two miles out from the city one month later. Maximilian 
said as the fatal pilgrimage was begun, "I am ready; it is a beautiful day to 
die." Holding the crucifix over his breast, as an indication to the soldiers 
where to fire, and with his faithful generals at his side to share the same fate, 
he received the death-dealing bullets. This historical spot is now marked by a 



QUERET.4RO 



385 



chapel which has been built in recent years, but until that time three rude stones 
with an iron-railed enclosure were all that were placed to commemorate an event 




AQUEDUCT AT QUERETARO. 

so important to Mexico, for thus the last attempt ended to plant a monarchy 
upon this continent. 

The Convent of Santa Clara and the Church of Santa Rosa, both noted for 
their exterior and interior carvings, are the masterpieces of Tresguerras, an 
architect, sculptor, painter and poet. He was born in Celaya in 1765, and died 
there in 1833. These are churches of which Queretaro should be proud, as they 
are incomparable monuments of Mexican art. It is difficult to describe the 
splendor of the wonderfully rich wood-carving, heavily gilded, the elaborate 
and graceful metal work, including balconies and grills of wrought iron, and the 
painting and sculpture all from the hand or design of this great artist. The 
old church of San Francisco dates back to 1690. 

The public buildings and educational and charitable establishments are 
splendid monuments to the ambition of an exceedingly good government. 



386 



MEXICO 



The Civil College, the Conservatory of Music, the Academy of San Fernando, 
and the School of Fine Arts are among the most important educational institu- 
tions. There are two public hospitals, the Vagara Hospital and the Civil 
Hospital, and many private institutions of this kind are extant. The palace 
of the governor contains all the public offices and the halls of legislature. It has 
also a historical chamber, which is full of famous relics that have a bearing 
on the history of the country. Portraits of all the former rulers and many 
curious objects adorn this chamber. The building is a relic of the days of 
Spanish rule and is a remarkable specimen of carving and masonry. It was 
once the residence of Josefa Ortiz, wife of a valiant figure in the War for Inde- 
pendence. She gave valuable information which aided in the fight for liberty, 
and enshrined herself in the history of her country. 

Senor Coronel Don Francisco Cosio has been governor for many terms. 
He is a distinguished gentleman of honorable ancestry and besides being a 
statesman universally esteemed, is patriotic, public-spirited and well-loved by 
the people. 




MEMORIAL CHAPEL TO MAXIMILIAN, MARKING THE PLACE OF HIS EXECUTION, 




A GENERAL VIEW OF ZACATECAS. 



CHAPTER XXV 



ZACATECAS 



ZACATECAS is celebrated for its enormous output of silver. It is an inland 
State south of Durango and surrounded by Coahuila and San Luis Potosi, 
Aguascalientes and Jalisco. The hilly country of the middle and west is inter- 
spersed with wide valleys and deep gorges and ravines, furnishing a variety of 
wild and beautiful scenery. It has long ranked first in importance among the 
mining regions of Mexico. The State is poorly watered, there being no large 
streams. Mining is the chief industry, although agriculture is extensively and 
profitably carried on. 

Zacatecas is a picturesque city lying in a deep gorge of the mountains about 
three hundred miles northeast of the capital. It is called the Jerusalem of 

Mexico. It has many churches, hospitals, a mint and good schools and a 

387 



388 



MEXICO 



literary institute founded in 1868. The first mine was discovered in September, 
1546. On July 1, 1818, it was estimated that the total output of the mines since 
their discovery aggregated the sum of seven hundred million dollars. These 
silver mines are steadily producing an increased quantity of ore. 

The city is reached by a steep slope from the railway station and the 
narrow streets are wonderfully clean. Everywhere the little courtyards are 
seen through open doorways. There are many market-places and the central 
one has a great stone fountain around which at almost every hour of the 
day may be seen women and children with great red earthen jars and little 

gourd-shaped cups which they use 
to fill the jars. 

To see Zacatecas one must go 
down a steep side street to the 
beautiful old church with its great 
facade of curved freestone and three 
unique spires and the arcade cov- 
ered with its double row of arches. 
Everything glows with color — the 
sky, the frescoes, the flowers, the 
trees, the gaily dressed people and 
the broad stone seats. The inner 
court of the government patio is 
finished with a dado and frieze of 
blue and yellow; the slender pillars 
in double columns between the 
arches of the first and second floors 
are brilliant with stencilled wreaths 
of flowers; the broad stone steps 
curving away to the upper galleries 
are ornamented with pots of tropi- 
cal plants. From a corner of one 
of these galleries one sees a beautiful 
picture. The red sandstone towers of the cathedral, with their artistic carving, 
are barbaric in splendor and still harmonious. Against the sapphire sky their 
outlines are wonderful and there is no end of novelty. 




THE CATHEDRAL, ZACATECAS 



Z. 4 CAT EC AS 



389 



The low-topped houses and domed churches remind one of Palestine. 
Far up on the mountain called "La Bufa" is the shrine which the Mexican 
devotees visit to obtain remission of their sins, many of them scaling the steep 
sides of the mountain upon their 
hands and knees as an exceptional 
self-imposed penance. The people 
wear their peculiarly picturesque 
garb and should it be Sunday and 
the band playing in the plaza the 
moving throngs form a veritable 
kaleidoscopic scene, wonderfully 
pleasing to the eye. 

Water is comparatively scarce 
inZacatecas. The fountains in the 
plaza are always thronged with 
people and as early as four o'clock 
each morning men and women of 
the poorer classes are at the foun- 
tain filling their jars with water, 
which they sell to later arrivals at 
a centavo for four gallons, the 
quantity a jar holds. 

There are schools, hospitals 
and markets, the latter with their 
many varieties of fruit unknown 
in other countries. Many of the 
vendors spread shawls on the 
pavement and divide their articles 

into sundry little piles, each of which is sold for one cent. These sometimes 
consist of cooked articles, and many a passer-by gets a meal for that sum. 
One market-place is devoted entirely to potteries. 

The principal interest of the people of Zacatecas is mining. Among the 
public buildings is the Aduana, built of red sandstone with handsome carving 
around the entrance and the yard. Then there is the new public market, a 
fine theatre with pretty decorations and all modern improvements. Close to 




FACADE OF CATHEDRAL. 



390 



MEXICO 



the market is the Cathedral, built of red stone, with a wonderful front on three 
sides magnificently carved. The interior is equally rich. Toward the back of 
the theatre is the old church and convent of Santo Domingo. This formerly 
was very large, and the centre of the Inquisition, as were all the convents of the 
Dominican Order almost everywhere. The portion forming the convent is now 
the city prison; the old church and the chapter assembly-room still belong to 
the order of Santo Domingo. 

This church was the first one built in the State of Zacatecas and was erected 
between 1560 and 1570. All that remains to show that it belonged to the 
Inquisition under the Dominican Order is the assembly-room or " Sala de Actas. " 

The decoration of the church is very fine. 
The next place of interest is the church 
and convent of San Francisco. The 
church is small and very poor; the front 
is of carved stone, and the interior deco- 
ration appears to have been very rich 
in former years. The convent now is 
almost in ruins, a small part being used 
as a meson, another as a dwelling place 
for the poorer class, a small piece as a 
brickyard, but by far the greater portion 
has become dilapidated with age and 
neglect. The old convent of San Augus- 
tin has been almost entirely turned into 
dwelling houses, but the church, a very 
fine building, has been left entire, and 
belongs to the Presbyterian missions. 

Huge stone walls and mountain sides 
are everywhere, with patches of green 
here and there, making up a picturesque 
combination. 

There are several silver mines in the 
vicinity of Zacatecas, some of them ex- 
ceedingly valuable. The principal mining districts in the State, besides Zaca- 
tecas, are Fresnillo, Sombrerete, Chalchihuites, Nieves, Pihos, Mazapil, Ojo, 




STREET SCENE, ZACATECAS 



ZACATECAS 391 

Caliente and Mezquital del Oro. These furnish, in addition to large quantities 
of gold and silver, copper, tin, lead, iron, cobalt, antimony, cinnebar, arsenic, 
sulphur, and alum. The products of these mines average yearly from five to 
six million dollars, the mint coining five hundred thousand dollars per month. 

This place is renowned for health, and no case of consumption was ever 
known there. 

Guadalupe, a suburb of nine thousand people some six miles distant, can 
be reached by tramway. The cars, operated by the gravitation system, start 
slowly but are soon whirling down the steep hills, passing by the queer adobe 
houses, the track now crossing over a bridge beneath which are seen droves of 
burros carrying the ore from the mines. Again, through a gulch around some 
huge boulders or past the yawning mouth of some mine, the magnificent views 
and the varied objects creating a thousand vivid impressions. 

The Cathedral of Guadalupe with its tiled dome and its beautiful surround- 
ings, presents a delightful appearance as one approaches through the plaza 
planted thickly with roses and countless varieties of flowers. Upon the altar 
are life-sized figures representing the crucifixion, and in the background is a 
painting of the hill of Calvary with the attending Roman soldiers and the Jews 
grouped around. Attached to the cathedral is an art gallery containing many 
magnificent paintings, the subjects drawn from the Holy Scriptures and in their 
treatment showing the work of some master hand. The new chapel on the 
north of the cathedral, the gift of a lady of great wealth, is considered one of the 
finest in the world. The steps leading to the altar are of onyx, only the rarest 
kind being used. The rail of the altar is of solid silver, and the altar itself in 
parts is constructed of solid silver and gold. 

The remains of an old convent is occupied by a school. In this institu- 
tion there are over two hundred boys from the poorer classes of Guadalupe and 
Zacatecas, who are being taught the trades of wool-working and weaving, 
printing, bookbinding, carpentry, carriage and car-building, blacksmithing, and 
shoemaking. The blankets made here are equal in manufacture to any that 
might be bought either in the States or in Europe. This school was awarded 
medals at the Paris Exposition of 1887, and at the Exposition at Chicago, 1893, 
for woollen and silk goods made on the premises. Music and the English lan- 
guage are also important branches taught here. The establishment is self- 
supporting and certainly is well worth visiting. This is the pet institution of 



392 



MEXICO 



Governor Zarate, who manifests the deepest interest in the progress of the 
pupils. He is an able executive and shows great wisdom in the direction of 
the affairs of the State. 

There is a new theatre, a magnificent hospital of rose-colored stone, fitted 
with all the requirements of modern science; an elaborate system of lighting; 
a school for girls, with ample grounds and all the latest appliances known to edu- 
cators; a science institute; a normal school for boys and other public schools 
and improvements of importance to the capital city. This policy has not been 
confined to the seat of local government, however, as many useful improvements 
have been made throughout the State, including new schools, city halls, public 
gardens and markets. A word should be added in praise of the fine system of 
education in Zacatecas. The State spends nearly three million dollars in primary 
and higher public institutions. There are about twenty-five thousand students 
with two thousand more in private schools maintained by other individuals. 




THE CHURCH OF GUADALUPE, ZACATECAS. 




THEATRE, DURANGO. 

CHAPTER XXVI 

DURANGO 

DURANGO is politically divided into thirteen districts, which are subdivided 
into municipalities; these districts are Durango, Mapimi, Santiago 
Papasquiaro, Tamazula, San Juan del Rio, Cuencamo, Nombre de Dios, El Oro, 
Inde, Nazas, San Juan de Guadalupe, Mezquital and San Dimas. 

The climate varies according to the different altitudes. In the extreme 
northwest the peaks of the Sierra Madre and Tarahumara are perpetually cov- 
ered with snow and in contrast to that the heat of the southeastern portion is 
extremely tropical. The rest of the State possesses an even temperature and 
this combined with the richness of the fields attracted many settlers, who for 
generations have lived here and have enjoyed the fruits of this bountiful land. 

The proof of this is that one family having settled here remains forever. • Among 

395 



396 



MEXICO 



the natives there is a great characterisitic of hospitality, and frankness, and a 

certain romanticism remains. 

The principal resources are mineral and agricultural, one ranking with the 

other but still unexploited to the best possibilities. Under a reign of peace, the 

progress of this State is in close competition with the other States of the Union. 

With natural riches and resources this State should rank among the first. 

Statistics change naturally with the progress of the country, and with the 

rapid strides that are daily taking place in the affairs of an important State it 

is impossible to give a correct idea of all the enterprises. 

Another great source of wealth is the fine wood, which is of such varied 

production and estimable quality as to attract the attention of the world. This 

branch of production is exploited on 
a small scale and is not cultivated as 
it deserves. Also cereals and every 
agricultural product are fast reach- 
ing the point of development that 
will elevate this State to one of 
great importance. 

In mining the State of Durango 
ranks very high. This industry 
while still in its embryonic state is 
incalculable in riches of precious 
metals and building stone. Through 
this branch of industry, cities with 
beautiful plazas, splendid homes 
have sprung up and changes on the 
highway to prosperity under the 
protection of the wise laws have 
demonstrated all that the progress 
of a country demands. Gold, sil- 
ver, lead, iron, zinc, sulphur, and 
coal are the principal minerals. In 
the parts of the State that the rail- 
roads traverse there are many flourishing mines. In Valardeha there is a 

great smelter with all the modern improvements. 




SENOR LICENCIADO DON ESTEBAN FERNANDEZ. 
GOVERNOR OF DURANGO. 



DURANGO 397 

The iron found in Durango is the finest in the world. It has been studied 
by mineralogists, who marvel at it. There is one large mountain called Cerro del 




GOVERNOR'S PALACE, DURANGO. 

Mercado, which has attracted a great deal of attention. The iron in its native 
state contains ninety three and three-tenths of oxide of iron. Much iron has 
been extracted without seeming to lessen the amount that exists. 

At present there are one hundred and nineteen mining industries in exploita- 
tion, employing twenty-five thousand workmen, and fifteen million dollars' worth 
of mineral is exported yearly. 

Durango abounds in industries. There are small cities that have their 
manufactories whose products are confined to the State on account of the high 
rate of freight with which they have to contend. There are cotton mills, dis- 
tilleries, wood manufactories, dynamite factories and flour mills, all in a flourish- 
ing condition. Financial crises that often affect the nation seldom trouble this 
State. Very rarely do the industries suffer the depression experienced in 
many other States. We find also thirty electric light works, and many 
manufactories of cigars and cigarettes give steady employment to the people. 



398 



MEXICO 




SENOR LICENCIADO DON ALBERTO C1N- 
CUNEGUI, SECRETARY OF STATE. 



Telegraph lines extend throughout the coun- 
try. Telephones connect with all parts. New 
roads are being built and the government 
officials are in every way assisting the enter- 
prises in the interior by proper means of 
communication within their possibilities. 

In the year 1892, the first railroad in this 
State was built. In all, there are about ten 
hundred and seventy-nine miles of railroad, 
including a short electric line. The prolonga- 
tion of the lines through the great merger- 
system will be of great benefit to this State. 
The increase in the number of public schools 
in all districts has been remarkable. Durango 
occupies one of the first places of all the States 
of the Union in its rapid progress on the ques- 
tion of instruction. All the schools combine the best conditions of cleanliness and 
sanitation. One-fifth of the sum for public improvement goes toward instruction. 
The capital is Durango, which is beautifully situated some seven thousand 
feet above the sea. It was founded in 1560, by Alonzo Pacheco as a military 
station, and soon after 
was made an Episco- 
pal See. The most 
noteworthy buildings 
are the government 
house, the cathedral, 
a number of parish 
churches, a spacious 
hospital, a peniten- 
tiary and a state pris- 
on. There are attrac- 
tive public gardens, 
public squares, and 
public baths. Ther- 
mal springs supply cerro del mercado. 




DURANGO 



399 



the city with water and the place is remarkable for cleanliness. The mint at 
Durango coined twenty-seven million nine hundred and sixty-two thousand six 
hundred and sixty-eight dollars be- 
tween 1811 and 1845. There is an 
institute in which law, languages, 
and the sciences are taught, with 
several very good public and pri- 
vate schools. 

There are large mineral districts 
around the capital not yet explored, 
and Americans have found some 
good gold bearing properties. The 
people are rich and contented, and 
the resident merchants do not care 
to have competition. The fact that 
there are no failures is a good indi- 
cation of solidity. The developed 
mining district is very rich and the 
cattle industry is large. Cotton, 
woollen, and print-mills represent 
large capital. The climate is perfect all ' the year; never lower than twenty 
degrees above zero nor higher than eighty. The people are getting more enter- 
prising, after nineteen years of railroad communication, but Durango is a solid, 
business place, entirely able to exist independently of the world. 

The agricultural interests in the State have not been neglected, the 
situation being especially favorable to the cultivation of cotton as well as other 
profitable crops. A ready market is found in the City of Mexico for all the 
State products. 

The rich agricultural district surrounding Lerdo is under irrigation and from 
eighty to one hundred thousand bales of cotton are raised here yearly in addi- 
tion to the corn, cane, beans and fruits. A few miles out from Durango is the 
Fabrica del Tunal, one of the oldest cotton factories in the country, having been 
established by the father of the present owner, Sehor Emilio Stahlknecht, in 
1837. This establishment includes bleaching and print works, and its products 
of fine cloths are known everywhere as among the finest cotton goods of Mexican 




ENTRANCE TO PENITENTIARY, DURANGO. 



400 



MEXICO 



manufacture. The governor of this State realizes that the happiness of the 
people and law abiding conditions depend greatly on education. 

To Governor Esteban Fernandez the State owes a great deal of the changes, 
for there is nothing necessary for the progress of Durango that this ambitious 
governor fails to do. He has made it a life study to lift his'State to a splen- 
did prosperity, and with the rich resources and the high minded people who 
co-operate with him, he has elevated his country to a high standard and has 
carried through all his enterprises with great brilliancy. He is an intimate 
friend of the President, and during the Centennial he had many fetes in honor 
of the Independence. Monuments were unveiled and schools opened and many 
ceremonies were held in appropriate celebration of this great occasion. 

The City of Durango is noted for its wonderful police regulation. It is 
well lighted and offers every advantage for the establishment of great enter- 
prises. Its climate makes it a unique place for recreation as here one finds an 
unbroken springtime. 




ALAMEDA, DURANGO. 




THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA. 



CHAPTER XXVII 



CHIHUAHUA 



SEPARATED from the United States of America by the Rio Grande, Chihua- 
hua is the largest State in the Republic. It cannot be termed a beautiful 
State from a scenic point of view, but there are parts where it furnishes pictur- 
esque scenery not to be outrivalled anywhere in the world. A prolongation of 
the Sierra Madre mountains traverses the western part of the State and is rich 
in minerals. It is practically an undulating tableland, the plains averaging four 
thousand to five thousand feet above the sea, while the mountain-tops rarely 
rise more than a thousand feet higher. The climate is pleasant, the seasons 
being about like those of southern Texas. 

The capital city, Chihuahua, has a large mixed population: English is as 

much spoken as Spanish, and many American enterprises and manufactories give 

401 



402 



MEXICO 



it an air of progress. • It is distinctly a mining State. Numerous and important 
exploitations of silver ore has been made for many years. The mines of Chi- 
huahua have been celebrated for centuries. The most important are Batopilas, 
Santa Eulalia, Parral, Cerro Colorado and Minas Nuevas. Santa Eulalia is 
the famous mining camp to which Chihuahua owes its origin and prosperity. 
It is still one of the great silver-lead producers of the world. Batopilas became 
noted for its ruby silver at an early period, and is best known for both quality 
and quantity. 

Batopilas has only about four thousand inhabitants and is located on the 
river of the same name, a mountain stream low and quiet during nine months 
in the year, but during the rainy season rising to a mighty torrent. Owing to 
the steady work in the mines this town is more advanced than others in the 
vicinity. The Batopilas mines are among the richest in the world, although in 
this State there are others which rank almost equally well. 




STREET SCENE IN CHIHUAHUA. 



In cattle-raising the State of Chihuahua is one of the most important. The 
temperate climate and the fertile fields serve to nourish thousands of head, which 



CHIHUAHUA 



403 



are shipped to points in the Republic and to the United States. The price of 
pasture lands is low, owing to much undeveloped land. The stock is thoroughly 
healthy and the government maintains a 
strict quarantine on all imported animals. 

The ride over the Mexican Central 
route down through Chihuahua furnishes 
an ever-changing series of infinitely inter- 
esting views. The distant heights are rich 
in mineral dyes and exquisite in outline. 
Through some break in the hills one 
catches a glimpse of an exquisite valley 
with slanting sunlight streaming across 
it. Silent faraway cities, forests of cacti 
and yucca plants, and a host of brilliant 
flowers are always fleeting backward until 
the approach to Chihuahua brings one to 
the first distinctly Mexican city. Purpled 
mountains are in the distance below, two 
large steeples of the cathedral dominate 
the landscape, and low flat roofed houses 
lie along the reddish horizon with a truly 
oriental effect. 

Inside the city streets, long colon- 
nades with arches outside the houses offer 
shelter from the mid-day sun, and the 
outer walls are frescoed in pastel colors. 

Broad stone seats with high backs line the principal streets while clumps of 
Mexican aloes and prickly cacti hedge the roadway. 

The Cathedral faces the beautiful Plaza de la Constitucion. It was com- 
pleted in 1789, being under construction about fifty years. There is a barbaric 
richness of ornamentation about the facade of this beautiful edifice, carved in 
solid stone by native artists. Within its sacred portals and under the flickering 
lights of the altars many troubled souls find solace. 

Chihuahua was founded in 1698, but the town proper was not built until 
1718, and it was elevated to the dignity of a city in 1824. Its principal public 




MONUMENT TO JUAREZ, CHIHUAHUA. 



404 



MEXICO 



buildings are monuments of art and industry. The governor's palace is a gray 
stone building covering a square, with wide balconies and a large courtyard. It 
is not only a handsome building but it is furnished with an elegance and a refine- 
ment of taste that is so indicative of the Mexican people. Most Mexican towns 
are built in the Mexican style with plazas and garden spots and one-storied houses, 
but in this city there are evidences of the foreigner and it has the appearance of 
some of the Texan cities. In the Plaza de Hidalgo is a monument commemo- 
rating the execution on the spot of the first heroes of Mexican independence. 

As the scene of several historical events Chihuahua has many monuments 
to the nation's heroes. The city is very much Americanized: banking houses 
and investment companies are well organized institutions. 

There are hospitals, houses of correction, military schools and the State 
Normal School, which has a very high standard of education. A technical or 







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STATUE OF HIDALGO. CHIHUAHUA. 



industrial school for young ladies has been of great benefit to young women who 
are called upon to support themselves by their own efforts, and it is one of the 
prides of the city. 



CH1HU.4HU.4 



405 



Public education receives much attention and is conducted in a most pro- 
gressive manner. Among the most important schools are the Scientific and Lit- 
erary Institute, which consists of preparatory, special and professional courses. 




INTERIOR OF THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA. 



There are also departments of commercial, industrial, mechanical, mining and 
farming and these embrace a very practical course of learning. 

In Ciudad Juarez, a school of agriculture has been installed under the super- 
vision of the Government. 

Industry is taking a firm hold in the State. All enterprises have the full 
encouragement and protection of the government. There are several smelters, 
a brewery, ice and gaseous water factory, canneries, and iron and steel foundries. 
Arts and crafts establishments abound in all the smaller cities. 

Chihuahua has the honor of being represented in the Cabinet by Senor Don 
Enrique C. Creel, who was formerly the Mexican ambassador to Washington, 
and the governor of the State. His administration was noted for the manner 



406 



MEXICO 



in which he endeavored to elevate the Indians, and create in them an ambition 
to become good and useful citizens, to own land and cultivate it. He was called 
to Mexico to fill the place of the late Sehor Mariscal. 

Shortly after leaving Chihuahua one approaches the smelting works of the 
celebrated Santa Eulalia mine, which was discovered in 1703, and not far away 
is a great hacienda comprising more than sixty thousand acres of fine land. 
On that estate is an adobe palace two hundred feet long and one hundred and 
twenty-five feet wide. The gates and pillars are of cut stone, finely carved 
by natives. It has beautiful towers at the angles and a patio within that is 
as large as the plaza of some towns and much more attractive. This hacienda 
has a yearly crop of seventy-five thousand bushels of wheat and of twenty-five 
thousand bushels of corn. 

Agriculture was once the great resource of the State, but has given place 
to mining. Farming is carried on in a primitive way. The land is rich and 
all kind of fruits grow in abundance. Alfalfa produces several crops a year. 
Fine timber is found on the mountain slopes. 

Escalon is the junction point with the Mexican Northern Railway running 
to the great mining districts of Sierra Mojada, seventy-eight miles east of one of 

the largest carbonate camps 
in the world. 

Paso del Norte, now 
known as Ciudad Juarez in 
this State, is the connecting 
link between El Paso, Texas, 
and the republic. 1 1 gets its 
name from Benito Juarez, 
the first president of Mexico 
and during the occupation 
of Mexico City by Maxi- 
milian it was the seat of 

RESIDENCE OF SENOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL, CHIHUAHUA. gOVemment. 

The people of this city 
have stood foremost and served as an example for their patriotism and loyalty and 
it was to them that Benito Juarez owed his great assistance of food and money in 
1865, when the Liberal cause was passing through dark and uncertain times. 




CHIHUAHUA 



407 



One of the most interesting spots in the State of Chihuahua isCasasGrandes, 
a town of a few thousand inhabitants on the San Miguel River. This place is 
noted fur its ruined houses, which are probably the relics of some Indian metrop- 




THEATRE OF THE HEROES, CHIHUAHUA. 



olis. The main features seem to have been three large structures connected by 
ranges of corridors or low apartments and enclosing several courtyards of various 
dimensions. The extent from north to south is eight hundred feet, and from 
east to west two hundred and fifty feet. A range of narrow rooms, lighted by 
circular openings near the top, and having enclosures three or four feet high in 
one corner, supposed to be granaries, extends along one of the main walls. Many 
of the apartments are very large, and some of the enclosures are too vast ever to 
have been covered by a roof. About two hundred feet west of the main building 
are three mounds of loose stone, which may have been burial places, and two 
hundred feet west of these are the remains of a building one story high and one 
hundred and fifty feet square, consisting of a number of apartments ranged around 
a square court. For twenty leagues along the Casas Grandes and Llanos rivers 
are found artificial mounds from which have been dug up stone axes, corn grinders 
and various articles of pottery, such as pipes, jars, pitchers, etc., of a texture far 



408 



MEXICO 



superior to that made by the Mexicans of the present day, and generally orna- 
mented with angular figures of blue, red, brown, and black, on a red or white 
ground. The best specimens command a high price in Chihuahua and neigh- 
boring towns. On the summit of a mountain about ten miles from Casas Grandes 
are the remains of an ancient stone fortress which may have been intended as 
a lookout. 

Santa Rosalia is famous for its hot springs, which for curative properties 
are claimed by those who have used these waters, to excel any known springs in 
America. They are especially noted for their wonderful properties in cases of 
inflammatory rheumatism and all blood and skin diseases. 

Jimenez is a city of about nine thousand inhabitants and is the railway 
shipping point for the rich silver mines of the Parral and Guanacevi districts. 
Archaeologists find this town interesting on account of the enormous meteorites 
found here. The greatest ones picked up are now in the National School of 
Mines in Mexico City. 




PART OF THE ARCHWAY OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT, CHIHUAHUA. 




STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 



JALISCO 



JALISCO borders on the Pacific Ocean as well as on the States of Sinaloa, 
Durango, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Michoacan and Colima. In colonial 
times it was known as the kingdom of Nueva Galicia. There are many beau- 
tiful valleys and rivers, the largest of the latter, the Santiago, being six hundred 
miles long, rising in Lake Lerma in the State of Mexico and flowing through 
Lake Chapala, which is itself seventy miles long and from ten to thirty-five wide. 
Lake Sayula and Magdalena are smaller, but noted for their delicious fish. 

The climate of Jalisco varies from generally cold in the higher and northern 
altitudes to delightfully mild in Guadalajara and hot on the west coast. The 
capital of Jalisco is Guadalajara, the population of which is estimated at two 
hundred thousand. The city is beautifully located and is constructed with 
elegant blocks of houses fronting on clean, wide and well-paved streets, and the 
people are noted for hospitality, culture and refinement, cheerfulness, politeness 
and frankness of character. It easily holds the position of the Queen City of 
the Republic. Its cathedral, while smaller than that of the metropolis, is much 

handsomer and of greater architectural merit. One of the theatres, Degollado, 

411 



412 MEXICO 

is one of the most beautiful in the country. A superb granite penitentiary, built 
and managed in accordance with the latest developments and improvements in 
that line, is greatly admired by visitors. An entire square is covered by the 
government palace, which, while somewhat resembling the national palace in the 
City of Mexico, is even more harmonious and elegant in its architecture. 

Captain Juan de Ohate founded the Villa del Espiritu Santo de Guadalajara, 
which name was given to the town in compliment to Guzman, whose birthplace 
was the Spanish city of Guadalajara in New Castile. But the site then chosen 
proved undesirable, and a year or two later the town was removed to the Valley 
of Tlocatlan, not by the free choice of the townsfolk, but by the order of the Oidor, 
where, by a royal cedula of the emperor, Charles V., dated November 8, 1536, 
it was granted a coat of arms as a city. But this second site became the more 
distasteful the longer they remained in it, and especially because they were 
exposed to the frequent and cruel assaults of the wild Indians. 

Commissioners were appointed to choose a site and decided upon a fair val- 
ley called Atamazac; and eight days later all the townsfolk went out together 
in good order and in that fair valley made their home. In this spirited fashion 
was the present City of Guadalajara founded in the year of our Lord, 1541. 

In this city is the celebrated "Assumption" of Murillo, which belongs to the 
cathedral and hangs in the sacristy. Its authenticity is not a matter of doubt. 

The foundation of this cathedral was laid in 1548. The present building 
was commenced in 1561, and the corner stone was laid in 1571, by Bishop Ayala. 
The building was completed in 1618. I ts towers were thrown down by the earth- 
quake of 1818, and the clock between the towers was badly injured. The in- 
terior is rich in decorations and paintings. The two towers of this cathedral 
are wholly unlike any others in Mexico. In one of them is the "campanito del 
correo" the little bell of the courier, which rang only in the announcement of 
some important event. Another bell called San Clemente, was in former times 
rung during a thunderstorm to ward off lightning. An important adjunct to 
the cathedral is the Sagrario, a comparatively new structure, commenced in 
1808, and completed in 1843. The churches are numerous and interesting 
historically. In loyalty to the church, Guadalajara is second to no other city 
in Mexico and makes good its claim by works of charity and mercy. 

One of the most famous of the institutions of Guadalajara is the Hospicio. 
The building is an imposing one of white stone, handsome and attractive, covering 



JALISCO 



413 




GOVERNMENT PALACE, GUADALAJARA. 



an entire square, and containing twenty-five patios or courts, with fountains, 
flowers, shrubs, palms and trees, from which echo the melodious reverberating 
songs of children and birds, which seem to touch the hearts of all visitors, and to 
embody almost a life in itself. This is not a hospital, as is popularly supposed, 
but a home for the poor of all ages, from the baby in the cradle to the aged 
nearing the grave. The institution is admirably managed under authority of 
the State of Jalisco. Children are taught all that may be learned in schools 
of the highest order, and as they grow older they learn some useful occupation 
in the higher arts and sciences. The product of their labor is offered for sale in 
support of the Hospicio and includes some of the most exquisite embroideries and 
laces, made by the girls. 

The public square and jardines in Guadalajara are pretty and well-kept. 
Twice a week and on Sundays an excellent band discourses sweet music in the 
plaza, attracting a large crowd of people. There the best society and the pret- 
tiest young ladies are seen. By common consent the sexes and classes separate 
on the promenade. The inner or wider promenade is reserved for the better class. 



414 



MEXICO 



The gentlemen keep in line on one side and in one direction while the ladies do 
the same in an opposite direction, the two streams passing each other constantly. 

The plaza is a beautiful garden surrounded by magnificent buildings. 
On one side is the government palace, on another, the cathedral, and on the other 
two sides are long rows of portales, with their graceful arches. Guadalajara 
is one of the brightest of Mexican cities and has many charms within its gates. 
The government building has a modern air that is pleasing; its stucco is colored 
a light gray, and its white trimmings are decidedly agreeable to the eye. 

The American Club is the general meeting place for Americans of the city 
and vicinity. The Country Club, just organized, is composed of Americans and 
other foreigners, as well as a number of Mexicans. The French and German 
colonies in the city have their respective clubs. 

There are two church congregations of Americans and English — the Union 
Church and St. Marks' Episcopal Mission. The Methodists, Congregational- 
ists and Baptists maintain mission schools and chapels. 




STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA. 



A 4 U 'SCO 



415 




DEGOLLADO THEATRE. GUADALAJARA. 



The government 
building has an in- 
scription of a Bible 
passage. "Nisi Dom- 
inus custodierit eivi- 
tatem, frustra vigilat 
qui custodit earn." 
" Except the Lord 
keep the city, the 
watchman waketh but 
in vain." 

I none of the prin- 
cipal squares is the 
monument commem- 
orative of General Ra- 
mon Corona, a brave soldier, whose memory is loved by all true Mexicans, and 
who was assassinated by a lunatic in 1880. 

The Chapala Hydro-Electric and Irrigation Company, which owns the 
water rights and franchises, is now installing new plants on the Santiago with 
a capacity of fifteen thousand horse-power to furnish additional current to 
Guadalajara and the mining districts in the northwestern part of Jalisco, and 
this will bring the total production of electrical energy of that company up to 
twenty-five thousand horse-power. 

The city is equipped with a successful modern sanitary sewer system, 
constructed by Americans at an immense cost, and has an abundance of the 
purest mountain water, brought through a subterranean aqueduct from the 
Colomos range. Several artesian wells have been bored for auxiliary supply 
to the city system. 

The new colonies that have been opened in this city are very beautiful 
and the houses are constructed in splendid style and the architecture is exceed- 
ingly fine. Many of the English and American residents have built mansions 
and the Country Club is one of the most exclusive clubs in the republic. Mr. 
Samuel E. Magill, the American Consul, is much appreciated in Guadalajara. 
Mexico glories in her watering places and pleasure resorts. Lake Chapala is the 
largest lake in the republic. The principal village on this little inland sea is 



416 



MEXICO 



Chapala, where there are some famous hot springs and a fine new hotel of modern 
equipment called the Ribera Castellanos. This resort is very convenient to 
Guadalajara. No more charming excursion for a lover of beautiful scenery can 
be found in all Mexico than around this beautiful lake. For water-fowl shooting 
during the fall and winter months and for sailing and bathing during the entire 
year, these shores are delightful. Most all the members of Mexican society find 
themselves there during Holy Week and other holidays. The President goes on 
his yearly hunting trip to these parts, accompanied by his son and some members 
of his cabinet and intimates. He is noted for his powers of endurance, often out- 
stripping the others in his ardent quest for game. 

San Pedro is the favorite suburb of Guadalajara where the famous pottery- 
ware is made. This celebrated pottery is known the world over. 

This is a rich agricultural and fruit-growing country, producing large crops 
of wheat, corn and sugar, and the finest oranges that grow in the republic. 

La Piedad, one of the quaint old places, has a population of some eight 
thousand. La Barca is a city of twelve thousand people, situated on the Lerma 
or Santiago River, near where it empties into Lake Chapala. Fifty miles west 
of La Barca and fifteen miles east of Guadalajara, at the station of El Castillo, 
a tramway conveys passengers to the famous Falls of Juanacatlan, justly called 
the "Niagara of Mexico." The river at this point plunges over a precipice sixty- 
five feet in height to 
the rocks below, 
making a picture of 
grandeur and interest 
well worth seeing. 

Sixteen miles be- 
yond La Barca lies 
Ocotlan. This pretty 
place is on the River 
Sula, a short distance 
above its junction 
with the Lerma. The 
station is connected 
with the town by 
the hospicio, guadalajara. street cars, which 




JALISCO 



417 




PATIO OF THE AMERICAN CONSULATE, GUADALAJARA. 



run to the bridge just above 
the steamboat landing. 
Ocotlan is situated on a 
plain which slopes south- 
ward a few mi Ies to the shore 
of the lake. With its pretty 
plaza, its beautiful church 
spire, its portales, and two 
bridges, Ocotlan is very pic- 
turesque. 

Atequisa is in sight half 
a mile away on theTleft. 
Atequisa hacienda has miles 
of wheat-fields, hundreds of oxen and other animals and thousands of men at 
work on its farms or ranches. Here are the headquarters of the vast estate, 
storehouses, corrals, workmen's homes, mills, hospitals, school houses and a 
church, besides the princely residence of the owner. There are other fine 
haciendas, and among those may be found the most cordial hospitality in 
the world. The life of a country gentleman here is that of a hermit, in the 
total absence of all society in the nearly unbroken solitude that surrounds 
him. For leagues and leagues there may be no habitation but his own, 
the nearest village may be distant half a day's journey over an almost im- 
passable road. But he is "monarch of all he surveys," a king among his 
farm servants and Indian workmen. Nothing can exceed the independence of 
his position. 

Capitalists who seek a sure and productive investment for their money 
should take into account not only the richness of the soil, the mildness of the 
climate and the thousand attractions offered by life in that zone, but also the 
assured importance of Guadalajara as a railway centre of first rank with facili- 
ties for transportation of its varied products rapidly, not only to the principal 
markets of the republic but also to those abroad, for which it will have seven 
or eight points of outlet. 

One of these products that will seek speedy exportation will be the mineral 
wealth of Jalisco, which exists in great quantities and which possesses a richness 
of which there is now but little known. 



418 



MEXICO 



There are more than two hundred and fifty mines, the greater number 
being of silver with some traces of gold, three or four of gold, some of copper, 
and others of quicksilver, iron, lead and other metals. 

The city of Guadalajara has had for many years a mint in constant activity, 
coining silver and gold from the mines of Jalisco. 

Mining in Jalisco is in its infancy and awaits only the energetic and decisive 
action of companies with sufficient capital to astonish the continent with the 
fabulous riches of its veins, many of them as yet untouched. 

Guadalajara with its constant sunshine, its skies even bluer than those of 
far-famed Italy, and its mellow, genial warmth, is one of the most beautiful 
garden spots of the world. 

The intellectual condition of Jalisco is up to the standard of modern times 
and lifts the people into a state above the ordinary. The schools are of the 
best, the State and the cities spending large sums of money on them, so that 
the primaries are being extended even to the distant ranches, while the second- 
ary and professional schools rank among the best in Mexico. Jalisco's lawyers 
have attained the highest reputation, her doctors command the respect of all, 
her engineers have attained national fame and her "Seminario de los Obispos" 
(Seminary of the Bishops) is known everywhere as having graduated some of 
the most notable of the Mexican clergy. 




LAKE CHAPALA. JALISCO. 




VIEW OF THE PORFIRIO DIAZ TUNNEL, GUANAJUATO. 



CHAPTER XXIX 



GUANAJUATO 



THE peculiar situation of Guanajuato, the capital city, with its crooked and 
irregular streets and its fortress-like houses, makes it look very ancient 
and feudal, and, oddly, amid all this antiquity stretch the wires of the tele- 
graph and telephone, linking the old civilization with the new in a way that is 
strangely paradoxical.. The heart of the city is the Plaza de Mejia Mora, where 
there is a tablet which states that here was born Benito Leon Acosta, Mexico's 
distinguished engineer and man of science. 

It is one of the quaintest and most delightful places in the world, a walled 

city among the mountains, set upon the sides of heights so steep that the houses 

421 



422 



MEXICO 



seem to cling to the rock, and that a misstep might precipitate one into the midst 
of the plaza three or four hundred feet below. 

This lovely, bewildering spot is full of lanes and archways and winding 
market-places, where the picturesque people seem to be selling every oddity 
imaginable. The upper balconies of the beautiful homes are gay with awnings 
and flowers; the old church of the Jesuits with its fine arches of soft pink stone 
and carvings like lace-work is magnificent ; the overhanging hills show brilliantly 
against the blue sky wherever one turns; through a hundred different arches 

some vision of slender-pillared inner courts, 
bright with blossoms and fresh greenery, con- 
tinually flashes out. 

The climate of Guanajuato is temperate; 
no extremes of heat or cold. It is a land of 
blue skies and fresh breezes; the atmosphere 
is clear and invigorating. Mellow sunlight 
pours its flood of gold on fruitful fields. The 
forests are rich in timber of great value. 
Guanajuato is one of the oldest mining re- 
gions of the New World. Only one-fourth 
of the area of the State has been scientifically 
explored, and yet there are already over three 
hundred mines perfectly studied and capable 
of giving good profits. 

The celebrated mines of Valenciana, dis- 
covered in 1770, and abandoned during the 
War of Independence, in 1810, had up to that 
time produced two hundred and seventy-one 
million dollars. Baron de Humboldt, on his 
visit to Guanajuato, found a shaft eight hun- 
dred feet deep. . He made a special study of 
these mines, an account of which is to be 
found in his records. 
The earliest settlers were the Tarascan Indians who, upon arriving here, 
found a large stone in the shape of a frog, of which they made an idol, and they 
named the site of the future city Guanajuato, or the Hill of the Frogs. It was 




EL CARMEN CHURCH, CELAYA. 



GUANAJUATO 



423 



founded in 1554 and made a city in 
1741. The site of the city was a gift 
from Mendoza to Don Roderigo Vas- 
ques, one of the conquistadores, as a 
reward for his military services. 

The curious and picturesque ceme- 
tery of Guanajuato or "pantheon, " is 
among the "sights." The burial place 
is on the top of a steep hill which over- 
looks the city. The pantheon is en- 
closed by high walls entered through 
ponderous gates. The dead are buried 
for the little time that the peculiar dry- 
ness of the soil and air takes to mum- 
mify them. Then they are filed away 
in pigeon-holes in the walls. When the 
rentals cease the partially mummified 
remains are taken out of the pigeon- 
holes and corded up in subterranean 
chambers tunneled out of solid rock. 
Here the skeleton-guarded walls are 
musty, the light is pale and gruesome 

and the air is laden with the odor of the decaying dead. On all sides are the 
spectral forms. They are arranged upright around the walls, and there they keep 
their silent vigil until disintegration. A few years ago, when William Jennings 
Bryan visited Guanajuato he was horrified on seeing these mummies in the cata- 
combs and suggested to the authorities that they be covered, as the sight was 
very offensive to him. Out of respect for the opinion of their distinguished visitor 
the municipal authorities have voted sufficient funds to keep these mummies 
properly garbed. It is almost as gruesome a sight to see them now clothed in 
long flowing robes as it was when they were disinterred and placed there. 

The Manuel Gonzalez Dam was commenced on the 5th of March, 1889, 
during the governorship of General Manuel Gonzalez, the former president of Mex- 
ico, and completed in 1893. The material employed is a metamorphic deposit 
known in the locality as green rock, and exceedingly handsome. In the ornaments 




STREET SCENE, GUANAJUATO. 



424 



MEXICO 



are used sandstone of different colors. The effect of these combinations is beauti- 
ful beyond description, and all these varied materials are the products of the imme- 
diate locality. A wall, containing over forty thousand cubic metres, has been built, 
measuring one hundred and sixty-six metres in thickness at the base, or founda- 
tion, and twenty-four at the upper part. The maximum height in the interior is 
thirty-three metres and eighty-eight centimetres. This dam contains one million 
six hundred thousand cubic metres of water. On account of the short distance 
from the capital, only about three miles, and the difference of the height of the 
ground, the City of Guanajuato is supplied with water enough for all its needs 
and it will be possible to establish hydraulic motors of calculable usefulness. 

The picturesque and dangerous stream which churned its way through 
the centre of the town causing many times great disasters by flood and wrecking 
properties at different intervals no longer wreaks this damage as Guanajuato 
is now protected from this inundation by a wonderful tunnel called the Porfirio 
Diaz. It is the work of Governor Joaquin Obregon Gonzalez, who has caused 
so many innovations and improvements in the city. 




THE MANUEL GONZALEZ DAM, GUANAJUATO. 





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PLAZA, COLIMA. 



CHAPTER XXX 



COLIMA 



THE old realm of Colima was founded by the Aztecs, who made pilgrimages to 
this part of the country thinking to find a place to establish their empire. 
Their capital was situated in Cojitlan about twenty miles from the coast. Under 
the dominion of Spain it was a much larger territory than it now comprises. 
In 1824 it formed part of the State of Jalisco, in 1836 it was included in the State 
of Michoacan, but in 1846, it became a territory of the republic. During these 
distinct epochs it was governed first by sub-delegates and later by jefe-politicos, 
many of whom were foreigners. Owing to the remoteness from the seat of 
government there were many abuses of the people and the lack of transportation 
was a great drawback to their progress. Following the downfall of Santa Anna, 
General Comonfort occupied the Plaza de Colima in 1855, after having conquered 
Zapotlan, now the city of Guzman. In 1856, the popular movement of Ayutla 
obtained a general benefit to the country and the War of Reform wrested the entire 
republic from the crippling grasp of the church and started the people in a career 

of advancement. 

425 



426 



MEXICO 



The geograph- 
ical position is 
good and has been 
of great value to 
Colima in her 
progress. 

The port of 
Manzanillo, which 
is a natural har- 
bor, is an open 
door to all foreign 
trade and lately 
the establishment 
of important com- 
mercial intercourse 
has given the coun- 
try fine opportuni- 
ties. Every resource which nature has so bounteously bestowed is cultivated. 
With ambition and the liberal education of the people this State ranks as one 
of importance. The sanitary conditions have greatly improved through the 
vigilance of the Federal government, and all danger of fever that was once a 
drawback to Colima has been wiped out. There is a constant influx from all 
parts of the republic and foreign immigration is steadily increasing. One of the 
largest colonies is composed of staunch and representative Germans. 




STREET SCENE, COLIMA. 




CATHEDRAL, COLIMA. 



CO LIMA 



427 




Newspapers and other publi- 
cations have a firm footing, and 
many scientific and social socie- 
ties are composed of the best sons 
of the State. 

The most important rivers 
are the Armeria, Coahuayana, the 
Sihuatlan, Maravasco, Chocala, 
Paticajo, and Mamey are all 
formed from one enormous stream 
and flow in different directions to 
the Pacific. On the south and 
southeast the Coahuayana sepa- 
rates this State from Michoacan 
as far as the Puente del Naranjo 
or the mouth of the Apiza, while 
the River Tuxpan separates Ja- 
lisco from Colima. 

The physical aspect of this 
coast State presents an admirable mixture of beautiful scenery. With chains 
of mountains like a great amphitheatre, the magnificent volcanoes, covered with 
snow, or seething with fire, the splendid vegetation which presents itself in every 
locality and the nearness to the Pacific Ocean give it a distinctness of type that 
is very interesting. Rivers 
coursing down the moun- 
tains and placid lakes re- 
flecting the rays of the sun 
and tropical fruits growing 
in greatest abundance add 
to the joys of the traveller 
who finds himself on the 
way to Guadalajara, while 
the magnificent view of the 
stately Colima with its snow 
glistening in the light and maguay growing at the foot of the colima volcano. 



AT THE FOOT OF COLIMA VOLCANO. 




428 



MEXICO 



the multi-colored clouds that fleck the skies above form a striking contrast to 
the deep and dangerous looking barrancas. 

From the cold air of the volcanic country to the warm tropical climes, every 
vegetation known exists and the richness of the products cannot be excelled. 
The Volcano of Colima, which is forty miles from the capital, is eleven thousand 
eight hundred and eight feet high. It has been in eruption since 1869. The 
beautiful sight of this mountain with its clouds of fire and smoke, its molten 
lava running down the sides, can be witnessed for many miles. 




RESIDENCE OF COLONEL EDGAR K. SMOOT. MANZAN1LLO. 



The largest lakes are Cuyutlan, which is navigable, San Pedrito, north 
of Manzanillo, and the Calabazo and Alcuzahue, in the municipality of Ixtla- 
huacan. 

At the port of Manzanillo the government has. built a splendid breakwater 
and the harbor is one of the finest in the world. The coasts bathed by the great 
Pacific are ragged and dangerous, but there are some fine pleasure resorts, notably 
Cuyutlan, where many families go during the months of March, April and May. 
In the forests woods of all kinds flourish. Among them recinous, medicinal, 
and dyewoods are found in great profusion. 



CO LI MA 



429 




The government of this State is noted 
for its liberal and progressive attitude. 
Public benefits supply sufficient funds for 
hospitals and all establishments of char- 
ity and protection. The national rail- 
ways of Mexico unite Manzanillo to the 
interior and have been of great benefit 
to the commercial conditions. The tele- 
phone system is well established be- 
tween the ports and the capital and 
many branch lines extend to the neighbor- 
ing haciendas. 

The last census shows sixty-five thou- 
sand one hundred and thirty inhabitants. 
In the city of Colima the principal build- 
ings are very imposing and beautiful. 
The Government Palace, the Santa Cruz 
Theatre, the Market de la Madrid, the 
Porfirio Diaz High School and the Cathe- 
dral are among these. The new Porfirio Diaz Hospital is being built on a very 
approved plan. 

Since the origin of the State there have been twenty-eight governors, some 

elected by popular vote and 
others as substitutes. The pres- 
ent governor, Sehor Licenciado 
Enrique O. de la Madrid, has 
been eight years in office and 
his splendid administration has 
regulated the destiny of the 
State. 

He was born in the City of 

Colima on the 22d of March, 

1862, and comes from one of the 

most distinguished families on 

summit of colima volcano. the west coast. His high moral 



COLIMA IN ERUPTION. 




430 



MEXICO 



attitude and his splendid executive ability have caused the people of his State 
to realize that the reins of government could find no better hands for guidance 
than his. Besides numerous public works and great improvements in cities 
and ports, one of the greatest events during his gubernatorial period is the 
opening of the railroad which unites the coast to the capital of the nation. On 
the 12th of December, 1909, General Porfirio Diaz formally opened this railroad, 
assisted by the Vice-President, Sefior Don Ramon Corral, Sehor Don Leandro 
Fernandez, Governor de la Madrid and many distinguished people. 





















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PACK TRAIN ON THE ROAD TO COLIMA. 




ENTRANCE TO MAZATLAN. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

THE WEST COAST 

THERE is always interest in observing the progress of a people, their gradual 
conquest over evil conditions and their energy in removing all obstacles 
which stand in the way of advancement. The demonstration of strength and 
determination which result in triumph, stimulates the energies of men of all coun- 
tries, and the gratification that is gained through overcoming difficulties becomes 
a natural pride. This example the Mexican nation has shown to the world. 

SINALOA owes a great part of her progress to the people. The actual gov- 
ernment, comprised of sons of the State, is a body of men of action and intelligence, 
and the welfare of the country is their first consideration. All public works 
and improvements are jealously protected and every class of enterprise, mineral, 
commercial, maritime, industrial, educational and agricultural are prosecuted 
to the full extent of possible development. 

As a maritime State she possesses a wonderful future. Mazatlan has become 

a great Mexican port of the Pacific and is in close competition with the port of 

433 



434 



MEXICO 



Vera Cruz, though neither are rivals, on account of their geographical positions. 
The country is well supplied with banking and commercial facilities and vast 

enterprises for land develop- 
ment have taken hold here. 
Railroad service and quick 
communication with the Pa- 
cific have given Sinaloa a 
wider scope, developing with 
greater rapidity all this west- 
ern stretch of territory which 
has hitherto been confined to 
a small area. 

The Southern Pacific 
Railroad connects the United 
States with the port of Maz- 
atlan and opens one of the 
richest undeveloped mining 
and agricultural sections in 
the country. In a few years 
Sinaloa, under the dominion 
of energetic and enterprising 
citizens, will become one of 
the garden spots of America. 
The mineral and agri- 
cultural elements have 
greatly advanced and enriched the State and she is on the road to become a 
most powerful industrial centre. 

Sinaloa is a maritime State and compares most favorably with all coast 
territories. The situation between the great Gulf of California and the Pacific 
is most enviable and all active movements of communication are practical and 
convenient. 

The mineral zones that have been exploited are famous throughout the 
world for their riches. There are many precious metals in the picturesque 
mountains and judging from the prolific production of the relatively few enter- 
prises now at work, a rich and incalculable fortune awaits the prospector. 




GOVERNOR DIEGO REDO, SINALOA. 



THE W EST COAST 



435 



In the northern part of the State is the great silver belt. El Fuerte district 
has extensive gold-placer ground. 

The climatic conditions are excellent. The fruit and flowers are of superior 
quality and in the high and mountainous regions all the products of a temperate 
climate exist in profusion and are easily cultivated. There is plenty of good 
land at the disposition of foreign colonists and the government is always eager 
to place every advantage before the settler. A great number of foreigners 
are living in this country and they have all the rights and obligations of the 
natives. 

Rivers and extensive irrigating plants make the land fertile and wi£h many 
canals and plenty of water-power immense quantities of electrical power can be 
supplied to all enterprises and industries that exist and to those that may become 
established in the future. 




NEW MOUNTAIN ROAD AT MAZATLAN. 



The principal sugar estates are the El Dorado, La Aurora, the Navaolota, 
Los Mochis, and El Aguila. 



436 



MEXICO 



El Dorado is one of the finest sugar plantations in the republic. It is 
located on the San Lorenzo River. It is connected with the main line of the 




THE HARBOR, MAZATLAN. 



Southern Pacific by a branch from Quila. This hacienda is equipped with the 
best machinery and produces fine cube sugar. 

The writer spent some days at El Dorado and was the recipient of most 
charming courtesies and was initiated into the intricacies of sugar-making. 

La Aurora hacienda is in the outskirts of the city of Culiacan. This sugar 
estate has been under cultivation for years and is noted for its purity of product. 

The name of Redo has been associated with the State of Sinaloa for over 
half a century. Sehor Joaquin Redo, the father of the governor, founded many 
industries, among them sugar factories, steel plants, and iron foundries, and it is 
natural that Sehor Diego Redo takes such an interest in the State his forefathers 
helped to build. He is one of the most progressive men in the republic and 
has done so much for the advancement of every enterprise in his State that he 
is loved and respected by all, from the humblest peon to the greatest states- 
man. There is no doubt that the young governor, who not forty years old, 
has set the pace for energetic and modern advancement. He has taken the 
initiative in promoting every form of fruit culture and agricultural development. 
In the establishment of the Agricultural Mortgage Bank now in contemplation 
he will accomplish an incalculable benefit to the State. In this movement he 



THE WEST COAST 



437 



has the co-operation of strong interests in the United States and in the Federal 
District. This will be a great acquisition and will materially aid in the construc- 
tion of irrigation works and other enterprises which are necessary to the success 
of the State. 

The building of many cities is one of the plans of the governor and by his 
aggressive attitude in the actual progress of his State he is determined to make 
Sinaloa one of the most important in the Union. The first thing accomplished 
with the aid of the State legislators was the establishment of an engineering corps. 
This corps costs the State about sixty thousand dollars a year and is composed of 
the finest engineers obtainable. Surveys of the entire country are made, sites 
for cities are located and the proper locations of the big valleys and level of the 
streams are obtained. In this way, it was discovered that the Sinaloa River 
makes a loop of about eighteen miles and then passes itself within a dis- 
tance of only one hundred and sixty metres. The division of the river is by 
a single mountain ridge through which a tunnel is to be bored. This will 




PLAZA DE LA REPUBLICA. MAZATLAN. 



afford a sufficient drop to produce more than six hundred horse-power and at 
the same time supply the immediate valley with plenty of water for irrigating 



438 



MEXICO 



purposes. Through this means of survey the sites of some of these cities has 
been located. 

Governor Redo is noted for his policy and perception and is always a promi- 
nent figure in ceremonials where the distinguished men of the country are gathered, 




STREET SCENE, CULIACAN. 



and when a new building is dedicated or a new railroad inaugurated, this gentle- 
man is always present. 

On the opening of the Tucson and West Coast of Mexico Railway an im- 
portant link was formed in an interoceanic and international line, from the shores 
of the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Ocean on the west shores of the Republic of 
Mexico. Citizens of the two great republics met and ceremonies befitting so 
great an occasion were held. An intelligent and delicate tribute was paid 
to the meeting of General Diaz and President Taft by Governor Redo in 
an appropriate address, of which is given the following extract: "The joyous 
echoes of the feasts held in El Paso and Ciudad Juarez on the occasion of the 
meeting of our Presidents are still resounding in the hearts "of Americans and 



THE WEST COAST 



439 




SENOR DON JOAQUIN REDO 



Mexicans. We still recall the words 
of President Diaz affirming in the 
name of the Mexican nation the reci- 
procity of the cordial sentiments which 
on this solemn occasion were evinced 
by the countrymen of the immortal 
Washington;" and the words of Presi- 
dent Taft expressing in the name of the 
people of the United States the same 
sacred sentiments of friendship and 
'their profound admiration and high 
esteem for the great, illustrious and 
patriotic President Diaz.' And our 
present celebration may be considered 
as the confirmation of those assertions 
no longer in the sphere of diplomatic 
formalities, but in manner more effec- 
tive, as being the direct approximation 
of the individual correspondents of both nations. You have invited your Mex- 
ican friends to a great practical and symbolic feast; practical on account of the 
utility which the new railroad line will bring to both countries by quickening 
traffic, reducing freight rates, linking markets close together and offering occa- 
sion and pretext for a better mutual benefit understanding; symbolic, because 

this material approachment is the 
concrete and plastic representation 
of brotherly neighborhood of two 
nations, who, putting aside all pos- 
sible bitterness, take pleasure in 
the solace of a cordial friendship, 
and overcoming differences of race 
and obstacles of language, seek the 
ideal of a human solidarity, ever 
working for the common welfare." 
The capital of the State is 
cutting sugar cane, el dorado. Culiacan. It occupies the site of 




440 



MEXICO 



the old Aztec city of Colhuacan, famed in Mexican history. It has a popula- 
tion of about twenty thousand and is rapidly growing in importance. Being 
one of the oldest cities in the republic, many antique buildings still exist in a 
state of preservation which shows the remarkable craft of the builders centuries 
ago. It is in the midst of the gold mining district and is the centre of extensive 
trade. There are cotton factories, sugar refineries and several manufactories of 




AQUEDUCT, CULIACAN. 



great importance. The city has a fine public square and the streets are very 
attractive. Among the principal buildings are the Government Houses, new 
schools, banking houses and a magnificent cathedral, which has a collection of 
paintings of the old masters. The press is well represented in this State, there 
being several interesting "Dailies." 

The fibre industry has advanced with great rapidity, and some of the manu- 
factories are in a flourishing condition. 

Altata is the seaport of the city of Culiacan and is the outlet for the large 
agricultural and mining country. The export of ores, sugar and brazil-wood 



THE WEST COAST 



441 




PORTALES, CULIACAN. 



forms the trade of this port. A short railroad line connects this town with the 
capital. 

Mazatlan is a most important mercantile centre, but there are other cities 
that follow it in close competition. There are many important importing and 
exporting establishments. It is the 
most progressive city on the west coast 
and has taken on the appearance of a 
busy American port town. 

The people are well educated, cul- 
tured and refined. The educational 
system has every facility for mental 
equipment. 

The principal newspaper is El 
Diario del Pacifico. 

One is impressed with the beau- 
tiful approach to this port, the flank- 
ing mountains and the blue Pacific waters making a contrast with the tropical 
palms and ferns ashore. 

Silver mines are found in this locality and the chief exports are gold and 
silver, dye woods and fine pearls. 

SONORA 

Baron Humboldt called the West Coast the "mineral storehouse of the 
world." 

Sonora is notably a mining State and covers an area of seventy-seven thou- 
sand square miles and the mining industry dates back to the time of the Spanish 
Conquerors. Some of the mines worked by them are still producing. Deposits 
of gold, silver and copper occur in remarkable abundance and with modern mining 
facilities have developed great commercial importance, while hundreds of mines 
remian unworked since their abandonment during the revolution against Spain 
from 1810 to 1821. In silver production Sonora has been surpassed by the in- 
terior States but from the beginning it has held first place as the chief producer 
of gold and copper. 

Since the Yaqui disturbances have been quelled by the government and there 
can be no possible chance for another outbreak, on account of the strenuous 



442 MEXICO 

measures taken to conquer this unruly tribe, Sonora has begun to take on an air 
of great prosperity. Some of these Indians finding themselves under the abso- 
lute control of "the authorities have settled down to farming and mining and some 
of them have joined the army; in consideration of this schools and churches 
have been erected for them. One of the greatest benefits occurring from the 
establishment of peace has been the betterment of public education. It is the 
object of the officials to improve the school system in every manner possible, 
and all money formerly used as a war fund against the Yaqui is now turned to 
their interest. 

The Chamber of Commerce has taken steps to renew public confidence and 
open up old business relations with the sections of the State that have transferred 
their operations to other points on account of these troubles; the result is, that 
all inactive towns have taken on new life and public improvement has made 
rapid strides. 

This country unites all the conditions necessary for happy, reasonable 
living. The climate is temperate, water excellent and abundant and there is 
plenty of timber. It is a fine country for coffee, corn, cane and cotton and the 
annual shipment of bananas exceeds that of any other State. The agricultural 
resources should be properly developed and although recent improved mining 
conditions have made them a secondary feature, there is no doubt that farm- 
ing is to be one of the best resources of this rapidly advancing State. The 
fruit culture of Sonora is gradually gaining pace with California and the oranges 
from this part have been pronounced the finest in the world. The fact that all 
produce ripens a few weeks in advance of that in California is a good reason 
for farmers to know the value of this section. The steady influx of earnest 
people anxious to cast their lot in a country so rapidly coming to the front leads 
one to believe that the history of the pioneers of the Golden West is soon to be 
repeated. 

Hermosillo, the capital of Sonora, is one of the first and important cities on 
the west coast reached after leaving American territory. It is situated on the 
Sonora Railway, which is a branch of the Southern Pacific. In a beautiful 
valley with majestic mountains towering in the distance, this charming city 
occupies a splendid geographical position and is destined to become the centre 
of great commercial and business enterprises. Stately public buildings, grand 
old churches, and beautiful parks of palms and native fruits give the city a 



THE WEST COAST 



443 



semi-oriental appearance and, with all its quaintness, this is one of the most 
attractive cities in this part of the republic. 

There are no frosts in the winter months to chill the air, and no excessive 
heat in the summer. Possessed of a climate equal to that of Southern Cali- 
fornia, it is a most delightful abid- 
ing place. 

Within the past year the city 
has taken on a tremendous degree 
of activity; improvements are 
being made daily, buildings recon- 
structed and a company of local 
capitalists have laid out an addi- 
tion to the town, grading the 
streets, macadamizing the road- 
ways and in every way beautify- 
ing the city. Houses on the 
American plan have been built 
and many beautiful residences in 
this new colony are adding greatly 
to the appearance of the city. 
The energetic interest that the 
State government has taken in 
the progress of this country has 
given a great stimulus to the 
people and it is remarkable how 

many prospectors have flocked from the United States to cast their lots in this 
promising city. 

Hermosillo has about fifteen thousand inhabitants. It has several public 
parks that are being continuously improved. The Ramon Corral Park is the 
most beautiful. It was named in honor of the Vice-President, once the Governor 
of the State, and was donated by him. The Plaza de Armas is in front of the 
Municipal Palace and is very bright and pretty. It is one of the most attractive 
sights of the city in the evening when lighted with its brilliant display of electric- 
ity. A mountain in the city limits called Cerro de las Campanas has been con- 
verted into a pleasure resort with a fine drive to its summit, with byways laid 




GENERAL LUIS TORRES, GOVERNOR OF SONORA. 



444 



MEXICO 



out in a very attractive manner with rustic seats and many features of beauty. A 
handsome kiosk is in course of construction where military bands will give concerts. 

A large statue of the patriot Hidalgo stands in a square facing the Bank 
of Sonora, one of the most important establishments in the State. There are many 
fine banking and commercial houses in this city which give an idea of the pros- 
perity that reigns supreme. 

The Chamber of Commerce and the Chamber of Agriculture are very active 
in the interests of the State and Hermosillo boasts of fine institutions of learning, 
the idea of the government being to make the schools of this State the best and 
most advanced in the republic. 

One of the most important is the Collegio de Ninas de Leona Vicario, 
named in honor of the great heroine of the Revolution. It has a conservatory 




GOVERNMENT PALACE, HERMOSILLO. 



of music, a library, a gymnasium and a branch of arts and crafts. This school 
has been opened lately. 

The Academy for Boys is a large and handsome building with an excellent 
system of manual training in connection with other branches. The public 



THE W EST COAST 



445 



schools of the city are maintained at a cost of eighty thousand dollars a year. 
American interests are well protected by Mr. Louis Hostetter, who is the Consul. 
He is well loved by the natives and has the respect of all the government officials. 
He has enlarged the trade with the United States and his work is much appre- 




CATHEDRAL AT ALAMOS, SONORA. 



ciated. Public improvements are steadily going on. A concession has been 
granted for a dam in the Sonora River, about ten miles from the city. This will 
be of great benefit to the outlying districts as well as to the capital, for there has 
been a great waste of water that should irrigate at least five hundred thousand 
acres of land. There will be a larger power plant to connect with the factories 
and electricity is to be generously distributed. 

General Luis E. Torres, the Governor of the State, is the General of the 
Military Zone. His duty consumes most of his time and the acting Governor, 
Sehor Alberto Cubillas, uses great energy and activity in carrying out the policies 
of the executive. General Torres is one of the noted figures of Mexican history. 



446 



MEXICO 



The government of this State is wise, fearless and impartial and all the officials 
are directing their earnest efforts toward advancement. 

Guaymas is situated on the bay of the same name and is a very old city. 
The antique houses of one story constructed on a solid basis still hold their own 
with the later structures of modern architecture, and the contrast between the 
two styles is very strange. It is the second city of importance in the State. 
The harbor is said to be one of the finest in the world. The works lately built, 
some parts are still in construction, have been done at great expenditure on the 
part of the Federal Government. Large vessels can now enter the port. The 
scenery surrounding this port city is very attractive and pleasure-seekers from 
the North have made it a winter resort as the climate is mild and equable. 

Fishing, hunting and boating are 
indulged in by those living here, 
and the great commercial activity 
grows in importance with each 
year. It is the headquarters of 
the Sonora Railroad whose com- 
modious offices are very hand- 
some. The Pacific Salt Company 
is one of the most extensive in 
commercial importance and there 
is scarcely a commodity that is 
not manufactured in this city. 
The Custom House, with the wire- 
less telegraph station, and the 
Marine Hospital are important 
buildings. The public parks are 
well laid out and are very at- 
tractive with tropical palms and 
flowers. 

Five miles from Guaymas is 
Empalme, a little town of Amer- 
icans. It is growing very fast. 
The houses are all constructed of brick and wood and are very modern and 
sanitary. The terminal and machine shops of the Sonora-Pacific Railway 




SENOR DON ALBERTO CUBILLAS. VICE-GOVERNOR 
OF SONORA. 



THE IV EST COAST 



447 



extension are here. Other cities, Esperanxa, Alamos and Cananea, are in close 
competition in mining activity. Alamos is an old and picturesque town sur- 
rounded by beautiful scenery and its history is full of old legends and traditions. 




BAY AT GUAYMAS. 



Cananea is the headquarters of one of the largest mining companies in the 
State. It gives employment to over three thousand Mexicans and half as many 
Americans. It is a progressive little town with a variety of enterprises, theatres, 
steam laundries, department stores, a newspaper printed in English, called the 
Bulletin, and a mercantile bank doing a thriving business. 

Nogales is called the Gateway of Mexico. It is divided by an imaginary line 
from the town of Nogales, Arizona. There was a great deal of smuggling carried 
on at one time owing to the fact that on one side of a street was American 
territory and on the other Mexican. But this no longer exists owing to the 
strenuous means on the part of both governments. The main offices of the 
Sonora Railway and of the Cananea Division of the Cananea, Rio Yaqui and 
Pacific are located here. In speaking of the favorable conditions which exist 



448 



MEXICO 




BANK OF SONORA, GUAYMAS. 



in Sonora the words of Gen- 
eral Torres are most appro- 
priate: "So great is the area; 
so varied the products and so 
fertile the soil of the opulent 
State of Sonora that no man 
even after a lifetime spent 
within her borders can make 
more than mention of her re- 
sources. This year Sonora is 
more than ever prepared for 
the fullest development of her 
history, owing to the subju- 
gation of the Yaquis and the 
consequent settlement of In- 
dian trouble. The resources 
of Sonora fall naturally into three great divisions; mining, agriculture and 
stock-raising. 

" In mining it has produced millions of dollars worth of gold, silver, copper 
and lead, and will produce millions more in the new wave of progress which is 
sweeping over the State. Mines which have been producing since the middle 
of the sixteenth century are being driven deeper and rich new prospects are 
being opened up all over the 
State. 

"Stock-raising, the origi- 
nal industry, suffered a severe 
setback during the recent In- 
dian troubles, but is again 
being raised to the place of 
prominence it should occupy 
in the wealth-producing land 
of Sonora." 

South of Sinaloa along 
the Pacific Coast lies the Ter- 
ritory of TEPIC. It Originally ramon corral park, hermosillo. 




THE I VEST COAST 



449 




YAQUI INDIANS. 



belonged to the State of Jalisco but it was declared a free territory during the 
administration of General Lerdo de Tejada. 

Its agricultural prod- 
ucts are rich and all kinds 
of tropical fruits grow in 
great abundance. 

The chief industry is 
salt, which is of great im- 
portance commercially. 

The Tepic territory is 
remarkable for the number 
of waterfalls it contains, and 
the rivers which supply 
water throughout the entire 
territory. 

While the beauties of 
southern California are well known, the imaginary line that separates from Baja 
California marks no difference in soil or climate. It is a continuation of the 
same general features. 

The Peninsula of Lower California was discovered by Cortes in 1536. It is 
traversed by a volcanic range of mountains. The Jesuits formed establishments 
there about 1690 and instructed the native Indians in the arts of agriculture and 
civilization. They remained there until 1767 and the ruins of their old missions 
are to-day exceedingly picturesque. 

At La Paz the pearl fisheries are very extensive and some of the finest pearls 
in the world are among these deposits. More than a thousand divers are em- 
ployed during the season, which lasts from May till November. 

Politically, the peninsula is a territory. The two chief cities are La Paz, in 
the south, and Ensenada in the north. Ensenada is an American town exceed- 
ingly attractive in appearance. It is beautifully situated in a healthful location 
and is a natural outlet of great inland business and mineral wealth. 

Magdalena Bay is one of the beautiful places along the Pacific Coast, and 
is surrounded by a green country. Orchilla is a parasitic moss which hangs from 
the trees throughout this region, adding a touch of picturesqueness to the natural 
beauties of the place. Large quantities of it are gathered on the seashore and in 



450 



MEXICO 



the vicinity, pressed and shipped to Europe, where it is used for the purpose of 
dyeing sealskins. 

The region around Cape San Lucas is beautiful in the extreme, and not far 
from there lies the picturesque little village of San Jose del Cabo, which is a 
shipping port with a coast custom house section. The Orizaba and the Coos 
Bay, steamers of the Pacific Coast Company, stop at all principal ports, and 
furnish the best possible means of communication between San Francisco and 
Guaymas, Sonora. 




MUNICIPAL PALACE, GUAYMAS 





EilK/ / 4k^l 






B^jB-'vs^BBjBfcN. «B .v^flfiBH Bfc'J JBtV 




I 


•r* ^ ^^SHP^HSB^S ^^355^ 





THE PLAZA, ZAMORA. 



CHAPTER XXXII 



MICHOACAN, MORELOS, GUERRERO 



CORTES took an excursion through Michoacan after the fall of Mexico and 
was delighted with what he saw. It was at this time a powerful and 
independent State, inhabited by one of the kindred Nahuatlac races. The 
Spaniards advanced across the State and erected a cross on the Pacific Coast 
in the name of their Catholic majesties. On their return they took back samples 
of gold and California pearls, and the report of the great Southern Ocean beyond. 
Cortes wrote: "Most of all do I exult in these tidings of a great ocean. For, 
in it, as cosmographers and those learned men who know most about the 
Indies inform us, are scattered rich isles, teeming with gold and spices and 
precious stones." Even then had the Spaniards begun to look on Mexico 
as a great treasure house to be drawn upon to support their own extravagant 
country. 

Michoacan lies on the western slope of the great cordillera of Anahuac. 
The territory is extremely mountainous and its scenery strikingly picturesque, 
characterized by enchanting gorges, beautiful valleys and vast plains of fertile 
lands along the banks of glistening streams, whose course is sometimes impeded 
by huge rocks, and which occasionally acquire great rapidity, as can be observed 

especially at the Falls of Onendo. Its most noted mountain peak is the volcano 

453 



454 MEXICO 

of Jorullo. The State is called Michoacan de Ocampo in honor of one of the 
great heroes of Mexican independence. 

The story of Ocampo adds another to the many romantic episodes of 
Mexican revolutionary days. He was one of the great heroes who sacrificed life 
for the sake of the country he was so determined to free from foreign tyranny. 
When he was captured by the enemy and condemned to be shot his last request 
was that his heart should be taken from his dead body and carried back to his 
native State. This was done and the State was rechristened Michoacan de 
Ocampo, in loving memory of one of its greatest heroes. 

Morelia, the capital, was founded in 1541 by the Spaniards and received 
the name of Valladolid. It stands upon a rocky hill six thousand four hundred 
and thirty-eight feet above the sea. The streets are wide and regularly laid out. 
On one side of the Plaza de los Martires, the principal square, stands the noble 
cathedral and extensive arcades are along the others: this is the principal 
business centre. The houses are very substantially built and the government 
building is very handsome. The San Nicolas College, which was built in the 
sixteenth century and remodeled in 1868, is one of the finest edifices in the 
republic of Mexico. By moonlight Morelia is exceedingly attractive, with its 
fine square, beautiful streets and houses. Near by is the hill of Las Bateas, 
where by the order of Morelos two hundred Spaniards were murdered in cold 
blood to revenge the death of the curate Matamoros, who had been taken pris- 
oner and shot by Iturbide. 

Patzcuaro is a pretty little city with sloping roofs situated on the shores of 
the lake and in front of the little Indian village of Janicho, built on a beautiful 
small island in the midst of the lake. There are churches bearing the date of 
1580. The first Bishop of Michoacan, Vasco de Quiroga, who died in Uruapan, 
was buried in Patzcuaro, and the Indians of this State still venerate his memory. 
He was the father and benefactor of the Tarascan Indians, and went to rescue 
them from their degraded state. He not only- preached morality, but encouraged 
industry among them by assigning to each village its particular branch of com- 
merce. Thus, one was celebrated for its manufacture of saddles, another for 
its shoes, a third for its bateas (painted trays) and so on. Every useful insti- 
tution of which some traces still remain among them is due to this excellent 
prelate, an example of what one good and zealous and well-judging man may 
effect. The old church of Patzcuaro is handsome and rich in gildings. At the 



MICHOACAN, MORELOS, GUERRERO 



455 



door is printed in large letters, "For the Love of God all good Christians are 
requested not to spit in this holy place." In this old town, too, one may see 









M ,'"•"' B^s&f.* ■■•-:'"''■ pV a 


A 


1 JJr fl 




m , mm&Mg^ m 








Hk iUiSJB HE. ■":.:■,"•} 1 J;:V 
Be Mi HBf - ^ <■ 1 « 




^\^^>..^^^S^i^ 


■£««3HBPBWI - '.-'ijljfc! 


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BB^ ■ -.-:." ~~ -■"-"- .-^. '■; 






WmBSjggzter^jS^^^^ '■-- 







CHURCHYARD GATE, TZINTZUNTZAN. 



specimens of that mosaic work which all ancient writers upon Mexico have cele- 
brated and which was nowhere brought to such perfection as in Patzcuaro. It 
was made with the most beautiful and delicate feathers, chiefly of the humming- 
birds, which they called huitzitzilin. But it is now many years since the last 
artist in this branch lived in Patzcuaro, and, though it is imitated by the nuns, 
the art is no longer in the state of perfection to which it had been brought in 
the days of Cortes. Several persons were employed in each painting, and the 
work required extraordinary patience and nicety in the blending of colors and 
the arrangement of the feathers. Many were sent to Spain and to different 
museums both in Europe and in Mexico but the art does not belong to the present 
utilitarian age. Patzcuaro is well entitled to its name, which means "a place 
of delights." The station is on the lake shore; a diligence runs to the town, 
two miles up the hill, and the drive is a most charming one. There is a little 
steamer on the lake which runs from the dock to the northern shores, making 



456 



MEXICO 



several landings where there are no railroads and perhaps never will be. The 
object of the voyage on the lake, and in fact, the trip to Patzcuaro, is the famous 
painting in the old church at the village of Tzintzuntzan on the east shore of the 
lake — The Entombment, by Titian, presented to the Bishop of Michoacan by 
Philip II. of Spain. Such is the veneration of the Indians for this beautiful 
painting that the bishop has refused to allow it to be removed. Enormous 
sums have been offered by enthusiastic art-lovers, but the church authorities 
have declined to entertain them, and the picture still hangs where it was first 
placed by the loving hands of its original owners more than three hundred 
years ago. The old church is fast crumbling to decay, and its pristine glory 
has departed from it. Tzintzuntzan was once the capital of the powerful 

empire of Tarasco, which suc- 
cessfully resisted to the last the 
incursions of the Montezumas. 
After the Spanish conquest this 
was the seat of the Bishopric of 
Tarasco and was held in high 
esteem by Philip II. The steamer 
runs irregularly but need not be 
depended on for the trip to Tzin- 
tzuntzan. 

Uruapan, farther west, is the 
gem of the Indian villages. It 
has a few good houses and fine 
streets; but its boast is of the In- 
dian cottages all so clean and snug 
and tasteful, surrounded by fruit 
trees. In this region the finest 
coffee in the world is raised, the 
"Uruapan" being everywhere rec- 
ognized as the finest of brands. 

A number of old Indian cus- 
toms are still kept up here, modified 
by the introduction of Christian doctrines, in the marriages, feasts, burials, and 
superstitious practices. The citizens also preserve the same simplicity in their 




SENOR DON PABLO ESCANDON, GOVERNOR OF 
MORELOS. 



MICHOACAN, MORELOS, GUERRERO 



457 




PALACE OF CORTES, CUERNAVACA. 



dress, united with the same vanity and love of show in their ornaments that 
always distinguished them. The poorest Indian women still wear necklaces of 
red coral or a dozen rows of red beads. 



MORELOS 

Cuernavaca is situated at the foot of the southern slope of Ajusco, where the 
cold storms which sweep the Gulf Coast in winter can hardly gain access; hence 
it enjoys the perfection of a winter climate. Its summer climate is also agreeable, 
for its elevation of five thousand feet above sea level precludes oppressive heat. 
Moreover, the rain is said to fall here mostly by night. From this point one has 
a nearer view than from the city of Mexico of the great snowy summits rising 
above forested slopes, and here the interest of the view is greatly enhanced by 
the striking contrast afforded by an intermediate range of bare red rock, dis- 
ordered masses serrated, castellated, and pinnacled beyond description. Below 
the town opens out into a wide valley which is green throughout the year with 



458 



MEXICO 



plantations of cane. Streams of pure water course down through every street, 
and fountains are frequent. To this quaint and quiet town, verdant and shady 
under bright, warm skies, was attracted the ill-fated Maximilian and hither he 
was wont to ride by night to hide from assassins in the thick wood of his high- 
walled garden. 

Cuautla de Morelos has been the theatre of important historical events. 
Here it was that the curate Morelos shut himself up with his troops until 
the Spaniards under Calleja besieged it and the priest and his party were 
compelled to abandon their position. 

Among the attractions of Cuernavaca are the ancient palace of Cortes and 
the famous garden of La Borda, on which over a million dollars were lavished. 
Maximilian, when Emperor, had his winter home here, as had Cortes long 
before. The former lived for a time on La Borda estate, and Carlota and 

the Emperor breakfasted under its 
trees and spent long days in the great 
walled garden. 

Cuernavaca, the ancient Cuauh- 
nahuac, was one of the thirty cities 
which Charles V. gave to Cortes, and 
it afterward formed part of the estate 
of the Duke of Monteleone, represen- 
tative of the family of Cortes, as 
Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. It 
was celebrated by the ancient writers 
for its beauty, its delightful climate, 
and the strength of its situation. It 
was the capital of theTlahuica nation, 
and after the conquest Cortes built a 
splendid palace, a church, and a con- 
vent of Franciscans, believing that he 
was laying the foundation of a great 
city. The conqueror's palace is now 
the government house. It is most picturesque, standing on a hill behind which 
starts up a great white volcano. There are some good houses and the remains 
of the church which Cortes built, celebrated for its fine arch. 




FLYING BUTTRESS, CUERNAVACA. 



MICHOACAN, MORELOS, GUERRERO 



459 



Morelos is a sugar cane State. Governor Pablo Escandon is interested in 
developing the agricultural and horticultural resources; he has in view an agri- 
cultural school and model farm where farmers may see the results of new methods. 




LA BORDA GARDEN, CUERNAVACA. 



He has made a complete reform of the public school system. New schools are 
built and the best teachers employed. Taking into consideration that the largest 
proportion of children of school age in the State are those of farmers and labor- 
ing men and believing that they should be taught in school matters the things 
that will be of assistance to them in later life, he has added to the curriculum a 
thorough system of manual training and domestic economy. 

The late Frederick E. Church, the painter of nature, said of Cuernavaca 
"So far as I can judge from inquiry of good authorities, as well as from personal 
observation, it possesses in an eminent degree all the requirements demanded. No 
other place that I have visited in Mexico can compare with it in that respect. 



460 MEXICO 

The climate is wonderful. The situation commands more grand and lovely views 
and in greater variety than any city I have visited in all my travels. Cuerna- 
vaca will, in the very near future, become a very great resort and will be crowded 
all the year, for very few northerners have an idea of the climates of the country 
and that they are even more attractive in summer than at any other season. " 

GUERRERO 

The State of Guerrero was named in honor of Vicente Guerrero, who was 
born at Tixtla, 1770, and executed at Cailipa, February 14, 1831. Guerrero 
was a mulatto and originally a slave. In the struggle for the independence 
of Mexico he exhibited great courage and after the death of Mina became one of 
the leaders of the insurgents. 

The State is traversed by the Sierra Madre with its many spurs, and is con- 
sequently very mountainous, its climate varying with the elevation from very 
hot in the low countries to cold in the higher portions. The soil is very fertile; 
vegetation, particularly arboreal, is rich and varied and there are extensive virgin 
forests, containing excellent timber and many species of fine woods. Many of 
the inhabitants are miners, and on the coast numbers are engaged in pearl 
fishing. 

The first capital of Guerrero was Tixtla which, on its selection in 1849, was 
immediately raised to the rank of a city. It is picturesquely situated in a narrow 
gorge of the Sierra Madre, and has not yet become of great importance in any 
respect. It is five thousand feet above sea level and its chief occupations are 
coarse manufactures and agriculture. 

The present capital is Chilpancingo, a few miles southwest of Tixtla 
and situated on a pleasant tableland on the western side of the mountain 
range. 

In January, 1902, an earthquake almost destroyed the old palace in which 
were all the executive offices and the Senate chamber and a new palace was built 
under the direction of Sehor Manuel Galindo, the chief engineer of the war 
department. It was completed in 1906, and was opened on the 21st of March, 
which was the anniversary of the birth of the great benefactor, Benito Juarez. 
This palace is a remarkable structure with splendid reception halls and offices. 
The windows and doors, the face of the public clock and many fixtures were 



MICHOACAN, MORELOS, GUERRERO 



461 



brought from the United States. All the furniture came from the factories of 
San Luis Potosi. 

One of the first duties of the governor, Sehor Don Damian Flores, was to 
reconstruct the prison, which presented a very bad aspect, being in the centre of 
the city. This prison adjoined the Normal School for Professors, in which was 
also the Preparatory School and the School of Jurisprudence. This building 
was totally destroyed by the last earthquake and in view of the fact that it was 
not an appropriate situation for a school a beautiful prison was constructed. 
This is one of the most magnificent buildings in the capital. Its construction 
was undertaken by two young engineers, Carlos Baz and Rafael Najera, under 
the direction of the governor himself, whose original plans were carried out by 
the contractor, Sehor Luis Pozzi. 
The first stone was laid on a 
memorable political anniversary, 
February 5, 1908, and within 
eleven months it was inaugurated. 
It is of Doric style of architecture 
with some changes indicated by 
necessity. The Portales, of the 
Greco- Roman style, are of purest 
interpretation. 

Continued earthquakes, in 
1907, destroyed many public 
buildings. Among the most im- 
portant was the Civil Hospital. 
A new and modern building of 
the most approved style now oc- 
cupies the site of the old hospital. 
The plans were executed with fine 
detail and it is one of the most 
perfect establishments of this kind 
in the republic. Other annexes to 
this hospital are in contemplation, 

destined to be for general administration and the maternity asylum. The city 
of Chilpancingo was united with Iguala by an imperfect road that was impossible 




SENOR DON DAMIAN FLORES, GOVERNOR OF 
GUERRERO. 



462 



MEXICO 



to pass at times without great danger to man and beast. The government long 
appreciated the great necessity of a splendid roadway. Some railroad companies 
studied the conditions with the intention of constructing a road to Acapulco 
touching this city and other small villages on this same roadway. It was an 
impossible and expensive work. In 1905, the late Governor of the State put in 
practical construction the road which led to Mexcala by the way of Xochipala to 
the point called Milpillas and which returned to the old road and by this deviation 
avoided the passage over the barrancas. This work partially finished reached 




THE PALACE, CHILPANCINGO. 



the small village of Xochipala when the death of the Governor suspended all 
operations. In 1907, when Governor Flores occupied the office of first Magis- 
trate of the State he began to make a study of the prospect of this road being com- 
pleted. In order to have a successful outcome of this plan he appealed to the 
State for help — and the federation subsidized a plan to the extent of one thousand 
dollars for every kilometre finished; the respective plans being approved the work 
was begun, being divided into three sections, one road from Iguala to Mexcala 
another from Mexcala to Zumpango and the other from Chilpancingo to Zum- 
pango. 

On the section from the capital to Zumpango, the Governor himself directed 
the greater part of the work. When the road was finished the President of the 



MICHOACAN, MORELOS, GUERRERO 



463 



Republic formally inaugurated it on the 10th of May, 1910, accompanied by the 
Vice-President, the Secretary of Communications and Public Works and other 
high officials and personages. He made the trip in an automobile to the capital. 
It was a gala day when the nation's chief executive reached Chilpancingo amid 
waving banners and patriotic exclamations. Banquets and distinguished hospi- 
tality were extended to these visitors. Besides the inauguration of this automo- 
bile road the laying of the corner stone of the monument dedicated in honor of 




TAMARINDO TREES, IGUALLA. 



the great hero Guerrero was formally done in fitting ceremony in the midst of a 
great assemblage of patriotic citizens. 

Acapulco is perhaps the most important town in Guerrero, as it has one of 
the best harbors on the entire west coast. During the Spanish dominion 
Acapulco was the focus of the China and East Indian route, and was a place 
of considerable importance. The California trader later gave it a period of 
transitory commercial life, as it was a coaling station for the steamers between 
Panama and San Francisco; but with the new railroad now in process of 
construction, Acapulco is destined to see greater days than ever. The region 
around produces the best lemons in the world, the fruit being large and juicy . 



464 



MEXICO 



and far more desirable than either the Californian or Sicilian product. The 
way will soon be opened for marketing this product in New York and other 
ports, when the lemon industry is likely to blossom out into the chief soil 
product of Guerrero. 

"The Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific" is a line that is to give Mexico 
standard gauge connection with the old and historic port of Acapulco, whither 
came once the richly freighted galleons of Spanish commerce from China and 
Japan. In this connection it is worthy of note that the first fair and equitable 
treaty with Japan in modern times was made in Mexico. 




BALSAS RIVER, .GUERRERO. 




THE GOVERNOR'S PALACE, GRAND PLAZA 



CHAPTER XXXIII 



YUCATAN 



IN 1517, Hernandez de Cordoba discovered the beautiful Peninsula of Yucatan. 
Bathed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico and 
possessing throughout immense area lakes and beautiful scenery, it is one of the 
most picturesque States in the republic. Geographically considered, the Penin- 
sula of Yucatan extends to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The natural condition 
and elements have made this territory a theme for many studies on account of 
the great interest that is taken in the various resources that are presented. 

Lovers of art and history and students of archaeology have been drawn toward 
Yucatan for over a century. 

The scenery impresses one as being strangely unique. Back of the coast 

stretches a broad lagoon many miles in extent and varying in depth with the 

sea. Here the northern birds spend their winters. Beyond the lagoon, the bed 

of coral which composes the entire peninsula rises slightly above the sea level, 

presenting the appearance of a dry swamp. On the roads, which run parallel with 

the railways, patient oxen plod slowly along, their heads bowed under heavy 

yokes, hauling great loads of henequen in rude carts with wooden wheels. 

467 



468 



MEXICO 



The great industry of this State is the cultivation of hemp, which is a species 
of the cacti family known as "sisal." The magnitude and importance of this 
business can scarcely be imagined. The hemp grows wild in great profusion 
and seems to thrive best on barren lots and desert sands or in very thin soil 
where nothing else could find its abode. A "henequen" plant attains its full 
perfection is seven years. A stem shoots out from the centre of it, the leaves 
gradually detach themselves in the form of an immense spear or "Spanish 
bayonet," with sharp thorns along the edges, terminating in a strong needle- 
like point. A bale of henequen fibre represents the product of about seven thou- 
sand leaves. In most places the process of making the fibre by hand is discarded 
as unprofitable, and the stripping of the leaves is done with great machines driven 

with powerful steam engines. The 
scraper consists of a large wheel 
with strong blunt knives around 
its rim. The henequen leaves are 
pressed against this rim and by 
means of a lever worked by ma- 
chinery the knives remove in an 
instant the pulp which covers the 
fibre. The pulp having been re- 
moved, the fibre is taken from the 
leaves in long strips, like very fine 
silk thread of a beautiful green tint. 
It is made into small bundles and 
placed in the sun to dry. In the 
packing house the dried hanks are 
put up into four-hundred pound 
bales by a cotton-press. It is then 
ready for market, where its value, 
like other commodities, varies. 

On account of the present low 

price of henequen it is difficult to 

support the factories and meet the 

numberless expenses incurred during the long period of seven years until it 

reaches maturity and becomes commercially valuable. The farmers are now 




SENOR DON ENRIQUE M. ARISTEGU1, GOVERNOR 
OF YUCATAN. 



YUC.4T.-iN 



469 



They are also con- 
plant, and all the 



thinking about reducing the area of future plantations, 
sidering the cultivation of cotton, "pochote," castor oil 
products indigenous to their climate. 

A great interest is awakening in 
the manufacture of ropes, twines 
of all sizes and bagging of all de- 
scription, to such an extent that 
the factory La Industrial has been 
manufacturing these articles for 
more than a year and selling them 
at such profit that the demand is 
greater than the supply. Had it 
not been for the excessively low 
price of hemp the farmers would 
not have awakened to the fact 
that the time had come for them 
to look for new cultures and de- 
velop new industries, and the fall 
in the price of henequen has deeply 
impressed the minds of the growers, 
with the result that many new in- 
dustries will soon become established 
in this State. 

Next in value to henequen comes the bromelia pita, locally known as "ixtle" 
the ancient Aztec name. From this the Mayas' clothes are made: it formed 
the foundation of the beautiful feathered cloaks of Montezuma's time. The 
ixtle furnishes the poorer classes with their garments and hammock-beds in which 
they are born and die, and their baskets and household utensils and paper are 
manufactured from the fibre. From the roots of the plant a favorite intoxicant 
is brewed; the juice of its bruised leaves is the best known remedy for wounds; 
its thorns are the Indian pins and needles. A few years ago some ixtle fibre was 
sent to England for experiment in the great cloth manufactories and from it some 
handkerchiefs were woven which have since figured in several expositions, to the 
astonishment of all beholders. 

While the Mexican people are noted for their politeness and courtesy, the 




SENOR DON AUGUSTO PEON. 



470 



MEXICO 



Yucatecas seem to have more than their share of delightful simpatia. The 
women are beautiful and cultured and in no part of the republic is the social 
element more remarkable than here. Merida is called "The White City" and has 
been famous for its brilliant carnival celebrations. At these times enthusiasm 
and animation reign supreme. 




VIEW OF MERIDA. 



Merida was founded by Don Francisco de Montejo in 1542. The original 
home of its founder is still standing. It is located on the principal plaza and is 
an object of great interest. The entrance to this house is a wonderful specimen 
of antique carving. 

The cathedral is one of the handsomest and largest in the republic and the 
many beautiful temples are most interesting to visit. Some fine old carvings of 
the time of the Spanish viceroys are seen in many of these churches. 



YUCAT.4N 



471 



The new Peon Contreras Theatre ranks in beauty with any building of its 
kind in the world. The splendid appointments of this theatre and its marble 
columns and corridors are a marvel to those who have seen it. It was built 
under the supervision of Sehor Don 
J. Rafael de Regil, demonstrating 
splendid taste and judgment. 

Many prominent buildings 
have been erected in late years 
which are a great credit to the 
city. The General Hospital, the 
Penitentiary, the Insane Asylum 
and all the city government build- 
ings are modern structures equip- 
ped with every luxurious necessity. 
The Episcopal Palace is a speci- 
men of antique architecture and 
is one of the largest in the repub- 
lic. Merida has many benevolent 
societies and the public benefit is 
well guarded. Orphan asylums, 
correctional schools of arts and ' 
crafts, an asylum for beggars, and 
a maternity house. 

Some of the finest hammocks 
in the world are made in Yucatan. 
They are hand woven of the sacci 
fibre and are of unusual size. This 
State is as famous for its ham- 
mocks as Switzerland is for its clocks, 
at Merida. 

The Paseo Montejo is one of the fashionable drives. On it are handsome 
residences, among which is the palatial home of General Francisco Canton. 

The prehistoric race that peopled Yucatan and the wonderful monuments 
and ruins they left behind them have baffled explorers from all parts of the world 
and there are many theories advanced concerning the builders. The natives 







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HIS GRACE. MONSEIGNOR MARTIN TRISHLER, FIRST 
ARCHBISHOP OF YUCATAN. 

The finest come from the penitentiary 



472 



MEXICO 




CORRIDOR OF THE CURATE HOUSE, MERIDA. 



regard these decayed cities with superstitious awe, and they remain much in 
obscurity because few have braved the wilderness in order to explore them. 

The ancient knowledge of archi- 
tecture is proved by these mar- 
vellous structures and amazing 
relics. The ruins of Chichen-Itza 
and Uxmal are accessible from 
Merida. 

There are two agricultural 
chambers in Merida, "La Camara 
Agricula Nacional " and " La 
Camara Agricula de Yucatan," 
which are doing great work in 
promoting the industries of the 
State. One of these recently had 
an exhibit demonstrating the wonderful possibilities of the henequen, and among 
the numerous articles were baskets, hammocks and cloth, three widely different 
articles. The fruit and vegetable display consisted of the products of the State. 
A monthly magazine devoted to the interest of farming called El Agricultor, 
is published by the Camara 
Agricula. 

In the Yucatan Mu- 
seum there is an interesting 
collection of monoliths, 
statues, prints and other 
details of the old Maya 
architecture, utensils and 
personal ornaments of a 
primitive and mysterious 
race that inhabited the 
peninsula. Another mu- 
seum which merits special 
notice is that of the late 

Bishop De Crescendo Carrillo y Ancona, who was the first director of the State 
Museum. Fine parks and public gardens help to add to its beauty: in one of 




MODEL SCHOOL FOR BOYS, MERIDA. 



YUCATAN 



473 



these parks stands a splendid statue of General Manuel Zepeda Peraza, the great 
patriot of Yucatan. 

Sehor Don Augusto Peon is the mayor of the city and many reforms have been 
executed during his administration. New streets and avenues have been opened 
and schools have been established. He is noted for his philanthropy and the 




THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE. 



poor have found in him a good friend. His family is one of the most distin- 
guished in the State and he is held in great admiration and respect. 

Public education is given the most rigid attention. Among the most 
important schools are those of San Vicente de Paul, under the direction of Obras 
de la Ensenanza. These schools are conducted upon monthly subscription by 
those interested in the Christian education. In the scientific and religious 
instruction all the precepts of modern pedagogy are followed. The elementary 
schools for boys and girls are supported by the estate of the late Leandro Leon 
Ayala. These schools are divided into five branches with an inspector appointed 



474 



MEXICO 




for the supervision of each. The literary 
institute founded by General Peraza is 
under the personal direction of Sehor 
Licenciado D. Olegario Molina, who is 
one of the distinguished statesmen of the 
republic. To this noted gentleman the 
State of Yucatan owes its wonderful 
growth within the last ten years. He has 
occupied many high official positions, 
having been governor of the State before 
assuming the cabinet office. He was the 
engineer who had charge of the construc- 
tion of the first railroad that was built in 
the Peninsula, which connects the capital 
city with the port of Progreso. 

This railroad was constructed with 
local capital and the entire enterprise was 
organized with great success. In the 



FACADE OF THE MONTEJO HOUSE, MERIDA. 



cultivation and development of the hene- 
quen industry, Senor Molina has been fore- 
most in the enterprise. He is noted for 
entering into everything with enthusiasm 
and in the reconstruction of his State while 
he was governor, he adopted the famous 
system of his chief magistrate, General Diaz, 
of "less politics and much administration." 
With perseverance, which is characteristic 
of this official, Sehor Molina consecrated his 
attention to the irrigation and industry of 
the State, which are important factors in 
the national good, and during his adminis- 
tration agriculture assumed splendid results 




INDIAN HEMP CUTTER. 



YUCATAN 



475 



and the record that remains behind him is a monument to his greatness. The 
present governor is Sefior D. Enrique Muhoz Aristegui, who is progressive and 
enterprising and has followed closely the example set by his predecessors. 

The United Railroads of Yucatan have eight hundred kilometres of various 
lines which extend to all important points of this State and to Campeche. This 
company was formed in 1902, being a merger of several independent lines, as 




JUAREZ PENITENTIARY, MERIDA. 



follows: The railroad from Merida to Progreso with a branch to Izamal; from 
Merida to Valladolid with a branch to Progreso; the Peninsula Railroad; the 
railroad from Merida to Peto with a branch to Sotuta. The construction of the 
first railroad was organized by Senor Jose Rendon Peniche. 

The principal points which these railroads touch are Valladolid, which is 
known as the Sultana of the East, and was at one time a city of much more im- 
portance than to-day; Tizimin, where the three kings, Magos, annually met; 
Motul, the next largest city of the State, and a centre of importance on account 
of the henequen industry ; I zamal , another important industrial centre and famous 
for the pilgrimages to the Virgin de la Asuncion; Tekas and Peto, important 



476 



MEXICO 



cities of the sugar industry; 
Ticul, the centre of the corn 
region ; Halacho, another 
point famous for its religious 
feasts. The only port in the 
State is Progreso. The Ward 
Line steamers touch this 
port and this company runs 
excursions from the port to 
Merida, giving the passen- 
gers a glimpse of this unique 
part of Mexico, returning to 
the steamer in time to con- 
tinue their voyage. 

Mr.W. P. Young, of the 
New York and Cuba Mail 
and Steamship Company, 
has formulated plans for excursions to Yucatan on a twenty-day tour to see 
the ruins and enjoy the wonders of a semi-tropical climate during the winter 
months. This is an excellent opportunity for the student or traveller. 




STAIRWAY IN THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE. 




ARCH BUILT TO CELEBRATE THE CENTENNIAL, MERIDA. 



THE CATHEDRAL, CAMPECHE 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

CAMPECHE, TABASCO, CHIAPAS 

THE State is called Campeche de Baranda in honor of the father of the 
late Senor Joaquin Baranda, who was in the cabinet of General Diaz 
in 1896. 

The capital is the City of Campeche, which is also an important seaport 
for all the surrounding States. It is situated on the Bay of Campeche at the 
mouth of the San Francisco River. It has a population of about twenty-five 
thousand, and is fast growing. The narrow streets are irregular, and the houses 
remarkable for their uniform height of one story, their square form, and for all 
being built of the limestone which abounds near the city. 

Campeche was founded in the middle of the sixteenth century and has 

figured in history more or less ever since. It was sacked by the British in 1659, 

and again by pirates in 1678, and by filibusters in 1685. Its site has been twice 

changed, the present one being honey-combed with subterranean chambers which 

were dug out years ago by the Maya Indians, ruins of which structures may be 

479 



480 



MEXICO 



seen in the vicinity of Campeche. The city has several churches and convents, 
a museum containing interesting aboriginal relics, a theatre and several 
schools and colleges. It has a beautiful alameda, embellished with alleys of 
orange trees and seats of the native marble. The port is defended by three 
fortresses. 

Carmen has the best harbor on the coast, and is one of the least known 
ports. Large quantities of mahogany are felled in the interior and floated down 
the stream to the port. 

The commerce of Campeche was, under the Spanish colonial system, in a 
most flourishing state; but it is now confined mostly to salt, sugar, hides, hene- 
quen and articles manufactured from it. Logwood and other dyestuffs are 




PALACE OF JUSTICE, CAMPECHE. 



still exported in quantities, but the cigar industry is greater. The Campeche 
cigars are made from Tabasco tobacco and are often sold in foreign markets for 
the Havana product. 



CAMPECHE, TABASCO, CHIAPAS 



481 



Between Merida, the capital of Yucatan, and Campeche, there is a 
railway line which connects the two cities. This is a delightful route on 
account of the magnificent scenery. Rich forests filled with timber and valu- 
able dye-woods extend throughout the 
State. This is one of the chief exports, 
finding a ready market in Europe and the 
United States. 

The governor of Campeche is Sehor 
Garcia Gual, whose interest in his State 
is very evident. He is handicapped by 
many difficulties in the climatic influences, 
distinctly of the tropical belt, but his ad- 
ministration has been remarkable for the 
improved sanitary conditions and the spirit 
of advancement he has instilled into the 
minds of his people. 

Public education is the first step of 
the Mexican on taking the reins of a gov- 
ernment. Schools and all benevolent in- 
stitutions have in the governor an able 
advocate, and he carries his plans of recon- 
struction and enterprise with a firm hand. 

The latest-formed Territory of Mexico, Quintana Roo, lies between the 
State of Campeche and Guatemala. The inhabitants are principally Maya 
Indians, that race that has been so troublesome to the Mexican Government. 
The language is mostly Indian and they seem to show no disposition to speak 
Spanish, or to become used to the forms of modern civilization. Most of the 
industries consist of hand-work and Indian crafts, but the Territory is rich in 
valuable woods, and many tropical fruits. There are some good tobacco dis- 
tricts and the country bids fair to become a good agricultural section. The 
policy of the administration of General Diaz is clearly demonstrated in the 
splendid manner in which the Federal Government gained control over the unruly 
tribe of Indians in this Territory. 

On account of the condition of the country the population and the area have 
not been ascertained. Military control makes it secure that there will be no 




STATUE OF HIDALGO, CAMPECHE. 



482 



MEXICO 



more outbreaks such as have hitherto threatened peace and life. In spite of the 
characteristics of these Indians, the towns are well equipped with schools. 



TABASCO 

Tabasco is the great fruit growing State. It stretches along the coast of 
the Gulf of Mexico and has become greatly developed within the last few years 
by various colonies from the North. The population is largely composed of 
peaceful Indians, although many foreigners have yielded to the temptations 
that the rich and abundant resources have offered. There are many lagoons 
and inlets along the coast, and the Islands of Laguna Carmen and Puerto 
Real. The surface is flat except in the southern portion, where it rises toward 
the mountains of Chiapas. There are two navigable rivers, the Usumacinta 
and the Tabasco. There is a large amount of freight shipped on these 
streams, as they are the principal thoroughfares of the State. An unusual 
amount of mahogany and other useful woods abound. All tropical products 

are extensively cultivated and magnificent 
opportunities for further development are 
offered. 

The capital and largest city is San 
Juan Bautista. Cortes and the Spanish 
army discovered Tabasco and made a 
landing there before they went on to 
Mexico. It was then a very popular 
place, with the better houses built of 
stone and lime and the others of mud 
or adobe. The inhabitants, the Tabas- 
can Indians, gave proof of superior re- 
finement as well as unusual valor. Their 
stout resistance, however, did not prevent 
Cortes and his soldiers from finally gain- 
ing and capturing the country "in the 
name of the Crown." 
Many of the Spanish conquerors settled in Tabasco; others, in the cordillera 
toward the rich slopes and valleys of Oaxaca. 




GENERAL ABRAHAM BANDALA, GOVERNOR 
OF TABASCO. 



CAMPECHE, TABASCO, CHIAPAS 



483 



A great deal of the country is sloping and very much broken, but at least 
four-fifths could be well cultivated. Coffee always requires a slope. The 




STREET SCENE, SAN JUAN BAUT1STA. 



population, which is sparse, consists principally of Indians. These people labor 
faithfully and cheerfully at light work, such as coffee gathering. 

There is no finer country in the world awaiting development than this 
general slope. The rainfall is abundant. The climate is very healthful. 

There is a good quantity of water-power available all through this State; 
the supply of it toward the wilder end of the slope is practically unlimited. 

There is plenty of building stone in the country. Part of the slope has an 
unlimited quantity of marble of all colors. 

The trade of the State is controlled by Spaniards, who also own 
nearly all the steamers sailing under the Mexican flag in the Gulf of Mex- 
ico. They send home to Spain about one million dollars annually. A good 
many marry in the country and their children are among the best types in 
the State. 



484 



MEXICO 



This country unites all the conditions for happy, reasonable living. It is 
a fine coffee, corn, cane and cotton country and the annual shipment of bananas 
exceeds that of some of the larger tropical States. 

The capital, San Juan Bautista, is on an island of volcanic origin thrown up 
in the midst of the alluvial plain of the Grijalva, about sixty-five miles from 
the sea. It has a population of about fourteen thousand and is provided with 
street railroads and a first-class electric light plant which furnishes extensive 
service. More than a million dollars have been put into new buildings since 
1897, about half of that amount having been invested by foreigners. This 
city is noted for its rapid advancement and great prosperity. Although at 
certain seasons it is excessively hot there seems to be a bracing influence, for 

the streets have an air of activity and 
the shops seem always busy. 

The Governor of Tabasco, General 
Abraham Bandala, is a hard-working 
and able functionary to whose heart the 
interest of the people under his care is 
ever the first consideration. He is one 
of the great soldiers of the Mexican 
Wars and his record is emblazoned on 
the history of the country. 

CHIAPAS 

The general aspect of Chiapas is 

very unlike that of Northern Mexico. 

There is very little barren country, the 

medium and lower regions being covered 

by forests of valuable woods while the 

cultivated parts show fields of all kinds 

and abundance of crops. Through the 

ports of Tonala and San Benito, on the 

Pacific, the rich districts of Tonala and 

Soconusco can be reached and from the former port the towns of Tuxtla, Chiapa 

and San Cristobal are accessible by means of an automobile road. 

Chiapas is the most southern State in the Mexican republic. 




STATUE OF JUAREZ, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA. 



CAMPECHE, TABASCO, CHIAPAS 485 

Commerce is the most important industry of this State, while agriculture 
within the last few years has made rapid strides and has added materially to the 





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PARK IN SAN JUAN BAUTISTA. 



wealth of the State. On the Pacific side coffee is extensively cultivated and there 
are several sugar-cane plantations, as well as tobacco fields. 

El Salto, headquarters for the department officials, is situated on the Tulija 
River. 

Since the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards, the cacao of this district 
has been famous. Large amounts of foreign capital are streaming into the coun- 
try for investment. 

Tuxtla-Gutierrez is the capital and the residence of the State officials. It is 
the best trading town, being in communication with all sections of the State. 
A well constructed automobile road connects Tuxtla with the Port of Tonala and 
the branch near the coast extends to the Tehuantepec Railway. Splendid roads 
connect the capital with the towns of Suchiata and Chiapa and the plains that 
follow the left side of the Chiapa River render the country accessible as far as 
Guatemala. 



486 



MEXICO 



New colonies are being exploited and hundreds of thousands of acres of land 
are being bought by settlers. 

To the governor of the State, Sehor Don Ramon Rebasa, is given credit for 
the close attention to the extension of public roads and the encouragement of 
education. 

In the opening of the railroad extension from San Geronimo, on the Tehuan- 
tepec road, to Tapachula in Chiapas, another link in the great Pan-American 
Railway was completed. The inauguration on May 5, 1908, was made the 
occasion of great rejoicing in the State of Chiapas, being presided over by the 
governor and celebrated with enthusiasm by the inhabitants. 




PAROCHIAL CHURCH, CHIAPA. 




YAQUI INDIAN DANCE. 



CHAPTER XXXV 



CUSTOMS 



THE characteristics of a country are always an interesting theme and it seems 
that Mexico is bountifully supplied with legends and traditions that lend to 
her all the charms of a poetic and romantic nation. Born in a land of natural wealth 
and beauty, breathing the balmy air and beholding the bright sunshine of this 
country, the Mexican must be by nature allegre and alert to all the graces of living. 
The customs of the people, like those of all rapidly developing nations, 
are fast changing and in a few years there will remain few habits and fashions 
to distinguish this country from any other land. At the same time, Mexico 
retains many charming characteristics that she will never lose. Her warm 
hospitality, the frank extension of a friendly hand, the open door of the home, 
the adoration and respect paid to her women and the love and reverence bestowed 
upon her heroes will always stamp the Mexican as exceedingly attractive. 

In the home the life is sweet and supremely happy. Little children kiss 

their parent's hands, the old folks the hands of their elders, and the benediction 

487 



488 



MEXICO 



of the padre, who comes to pay a short call, is eagerly sought by old and young. 
In matters pertaining to religious education the Mexican child is reared in rigid 
form. He is taught to hold in reverence all the church feasts, and the precepts 
of the priest in charge of the parish are faithfully followed. 

Carmen Day has been a great religious feast for six hundred years in the 
Catholic calendar. Hundreds of homes are annually made happy with visits 
and gifts to the Carmens, who are remembered by their friends. Since Madame 
Diaz has been the first lady in the land, Carmen Day has been more popular 
than ever, as it is the feast of her patron saint. 

Every town in the republic has its plaza, which is always laid out with beau- 
tiful flowers and shrubs, with walks going around the square wide enough to 
permit many people passing back and forth. In the evenings and on Sundays 

the Municipal Bands render popular 
music and the young folks promenade for 
several hours. The young men take one 
direction and the senoritas the opposite, 
so they meet face to face at every turn. 
In this way the language of the eyes plays 
an important part. Sometimes a tiny 
note is slipped, sometimes a stolen word, 
by a bolder aspirant. 

The architecture of the Mexican 
house, with its barred windows and well- 
guarded doors tends to incline the people 
to lead exclusive lives, and yet once within 
these massive portals the beauty and love 
of the home life are seen in many ways. 

The custom of the master placing his 
house and everything in it at your dis- 
posal (esta a la disposition de usted) is 
very pleasing to note. You admire a 
ring, it is at your service; a horse is 
offered you ; letters are dated from your 
house {la casa de usled). Some, from ignorance of the custom of these mere 
expressions of civility, often place their hosts in a dilemma. A charming American 




INDIAN MAIDEN WATER CARRIER. 



CUSTOMS 



489 



lady, wife of one of the great generals, once admired a handsome fan belonging 
to one of the ladies in the official circle and on being told it was hers accepted 
it with great delight, much to the conster- 
nation and embarrassment of the senora. 
She carried her treasure home, but later 
learned that the gracious proffer was a 
custom of the land and returned the fan 
with a diplomatic note. 

The market places are a source of 
great wonder and interest. Here small 
tables and bits of straw matting are placed 
on all sides and upon these the men and 
women display their wares. Vegetables, 
fruits, and goods of all description are 
arranged in heaps, always with an eye to 
system and attractiveness. The people 
are sheltered from the intense rays of the 
sun by awnings of cloth or matting. They 
are all polite, and with their bright smiles 
easily gain customers. 

Together with the vegetables or 
flowers are found fat, pretty babies with 
black eyes, and always sweet and charm- 
ing. The flower-market is a place of en- 
chantment, for the love of flowers is a 

strong trait of character in these people. Here are men and women arranging 
great bunches of exquisite blossoms with a delicacy of taste that is surprising. 

One of the Easter customs is the hanging in effigy of Judas Iscariot, which 
is done everywhere in the country, from the large cities to the smallest hamlets. 
Mexicans attire themselves in black during Holy Week, and on the Saturday 
before Easter Day these grotesque figures of him who betrayed the Master are 
brought out everywhere and hanged and burned with all the contempt due to 
the betrayer. 

Peculiar little rattles which make a clatter representing the breaking of 
the bones of Judas are sold on the streets on Good Friday. 




TYPE OF TEHUANTEPEC WOMAN. 



490 



MEXICO 



On the twenty-first of August the Indians observe a feast in memory of 
the tortures to which Cuauhtemoc and his general were subjected by Cortes 
in an effort to secure information concerning the buried treasure. 

The laws of Mexico provide for the welfare of the Indians in a liberal manner 
and the best means of improving their mental and moral development is occupy- 
ing the attention of the leading educators of the country. A society has just 
been formed in Mexico City for the protection of the Indians. The question 
as to what should be the political responsibility of the primitive people, untrained 
in independent thought and action, is not easily disposed of, and blunders which 

have been committed by the 
most enlightened nations in 
this respect prove how im- 
portant is this problem. 

The Indian is still a child 
in mental and moral growth, 
but he is progressing under 
the benign influence of peace 
and security. Those who 
dwell in the mountainous dis- 
tricts have preserved in all 
their purity their ancient 
habits and primitive language. 
In some districts, as in 
the region of the Sierra, they 
preserve their native dances, 
and during certain religious 
ceremonies they execute these 
dances in their temples before 
the most venerated images. 

Many Mexican families 

are of noble lineage, dating 

back to the eight hundred 

years' war with the Moors, when their ancestors were ennobled for gallantry of 

service to their kings. Some of the best families are very poor but conserve 

their dignity and position always. 




IN RIDING COSTUME— CHARRO SUITS. 



CUSTOMS 



491 



Newer families of social distinction are descendants of successful soldiers 
who stood somewhat in the same relation to the old aristocracy as did the mar- 
shals and generals of Napoleon I. to the old French nobility. Descendants of 
presidents constitute another kind of 
aristocracy, in fact, service to the State 
in high office gives one's family and de- 
scendants a claim on popular consid- 
eration and respect. There are many 
descendants of the Aztec monarchs 
living in other countries, but few in 
Mexico. One of the small number 
remaining is Coronel Prospero Ca- 
huantzi, Governor of the Aztec State, 
Tlaxcala. He is a pure-blood Aztec 
Indian and speaks the language with 
a softness that is delightful. 

The ancient marriage customs of 
Yucatan are unusual as well as inter- 
esting. From time immemorial the 
Maya women have worn a simple form 
of dress which they never vary. It 
consists of two pieces, a very full skirt 
falling to the ankles and a loose upper 
garment called huipil, joined under the 
arms, only it hangs in graceful folds 

after the manner of the Greek peplum. Cotton or linen is the material, always 
plain white, though trimmed with colored embroidery. The women load their 
necks and ears with beautiful hand-wrought filigree jewelry. 

In almost every State there are certain dances and music typical of the 
people. In Yucatan there is a particular dance called the vaqueria. It is per- 
formed at the public fiestas by the mestizos dressed in exquisite costumes, brilliant 
in colored embroideries. The graceful dancers are inspired by music from a 
stringed orchestra of native performers, and their dainty feet move with a 
rhythm that is most fascinating. 

Mexico owes much of its peculiar beauty to the religious fervor of her 




A TYPE OF THE MAYA WOMAN, YUCATAN. 



492 



MEXICO 



inhabitants. Everywhere white crosses gleam among the trees, in solitary 
paths, on mountain tops and at the openings of mines. Even the haystacks have 
crosses fashioned in a rude way upon them, and buildings in course of construction 
are never without the sign of the cross. Wherever the footsteps of man pass, 
on rude huts, or barren rocks, the emblem of the faith stands, and in every hamlet 
the temple of God arises in comparative splendor. The symbol of the cross, 
strange as it may appear, was known to the Mexican Indians before the coming 
of Cortes. There was a temple dedicated to the Holy Cross by the Toltecs in 
Cholula and near Tulancingo a rock stands, engraved with a cross and other 
hieroglyphs or signs. Among the faithful-looking old trees a church will be 
found, gray and ancient, always gleaming in the soft light, the insignia of the 
Christian faith. The Indian, plodding to the nearest village with his wares 
will stop for a few moments to mumble his prayers before a cross that stands at 
the roadside. Wherever a murder or an accident has occurred rude crosses are 
always planted; sometimes it is only the branch of a tree fashioned in a primi- 
tive way, but always a cross. 




MEXICAN BASKET SELLERS. 




11 VV \*fa' :: ?**Jubr 



J*:. 



t.* % lis jSSaaSLJsLif 



SAN BARTOLO MINE, ZACATECAS 



CHAPTER XXXVI 



RESOURCES 



FEW Americans realize that Mexico was "discovered" and settled by Cortes 
a hundred years before any settlement was made in the United States. 
And in natural advantages no other portion of this marvellous western hemisphere 
can claim a place above her. 

Mexico is the geographical centre of the earth, an imperial place in the great 
highways of the world. The country extends between fourteen degrees and 
thirty minutes and thirty-two degrees forty-two minutes north latitude, and 
between eighty-eight degrees fifty-four minutes and one hundred and nineteen 
degrees twenty-five minutes of longitude west of Greenwich. 

The frontier line which separates Mexico from the United States starts near 
the mouth of the Rio Grande from a point in the sea three leagues from the coast, 
follows the line of the river to its intersection with the parallel of latitude thirty- 
one degrees thirty-seven minutes forty-seven seconds North (at Ciudad Juarez), 
runs in a straight line westward one hundred miles and then bends to the south 

to thirty-one degrees twenty minutes, then follows the parallel westward to one 

493 



494 MEXICO 

hundred and eleven degrees of longitude west from Greenwich, and continues 
in a straight line to a point at the Rio Colorado twenty miles from its confluence 
with the River Gila, then it turns toward the north of this confluence and bends 
toward the west, following the line between Lower and Upper California. From 
Ciudad Juarez westward the boundary lines are marked with two hundred and 
fifty-eight massive stone and iron monuments. It has a northern frontier of 
fourteen hundred, and a southern of three hundred and forty-five miles. It has 
a seaboard of sixteen hundred and seventy-seven miles on the Gulf of Mexico 
and the Caribbean Sea, two thousand and forty on the Gulf of California and four 
thousand four hundred and eight on the Pacific Ocean, making six thousand 
and eighty-six. 

The area of this immense republic is nearly eight hundred thousand square 
miles. The face of the country is extremely diversified. The littoral regions are in 
general low and sandy, especially on the Atlantic side, where they were probably 
submerged at no remote period as far as the foot of the mountains. In no part 
of the republic within thirty miles of the sea does the land rise higher than one 
thousand feet, except, perhaps, in Chiapas, where the chain of the Mexican 
Andes presents a mural barrier facing the ocean, toward which the descent is 
exceedingly rapid. On the railway from Vera Cruz to the capital every variety 
of climate is experienced within the space of a few hours, and the natural produc- 
tions peculiar to each are successively passed in review, from the sugar-cane, 
indigo plant and plantain of the tropics to the pines, firs, and lichens of the 
North. 

The Valley of Mexico is an elliptical plain with an area of about nine hundred 
and forty square miles, fringed on the east, south and west, by lofty peaks, 
some of which are active volcanoes; the plain may be regarded as one vast 
volcanic hearth, roughed at intervals by isolated hills rising abruptly from the 
surrounding level. The most elevated summits are at the southeast, where 
Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl tower majestically over all the rest. So regular 
is the great plateau formed exclusively by the broad, undulating, flattened crest 
of the Mexican Andes, and so gentle are the slopes where depressions occur that 
the journey from Mexico to Santa Fe, New Mexico, might be performed in a 
four-wheeled vehicle. 

There are seventeen mountains — ten of which are volcanoes — which are 
over ten thousand feet in height. Popocatepetl ranks first at seventeen thousand 



RESOURCES 



495 




SUGAR MILL, ATEQUIZA HACIENDA. 



five hundred and forty feet, and Orizaba next at seventeen thousand one hundred 
and seventy-six feet. 

The volcanic zone is about six hundred miles long from east to west, 
and over sixty miles wide. Its central line starts at the volcano of Colima 
near the Pacific and ends in 
the volcano of San Andres 
Tuxtla, near the north of 
Mexico. 

The crest of these vast 
Cordilleras, seen from the 
savannas of the coast, is 
defined from afar some- 
times against a blue and all 
transparent sky, sometimes 
against a misty background. 
Granitic rocks or snowy 
peaks accentuate a country 
which rises in vast echelons 

to the central plateau. Bounded on the east and on the west by a succession 
of heights, which merge into the axis of the two grand mountain chains into 
which the cordillera divides, it is different in many points from those ranges which 
traverse South America and of which they are the continuation. 

The mineral deposits of Mexico are richer than those of any other country, 
and it is known that still more valuable mines of silver and gold are being 
discovered. 

The mines during the colonial period were crown property, and those who 
worked them paid one-fifth of the product to the king. When Mexico became 
independent they were declared public property and miners were required to 
pay into the national treasury only a small percentage of the yield. Even this 
tax was afterward abolished, and anyone can by right of discovery, denounce 
or record a mine and obtain authority to work a certain number of varas free of 
tribute. A slight tax, is however, imposed on melting and coining the metal. 

Situated below the tropics, the climate of Mexico is not less uniform than 
diversified. The temperature of each locality is almost always the same, yet 
the different localities present many distinct temperatures. 



496 



MEXICO 



There is comparatively little difference between summer and winter, 
except that one is the wet season and the other the dry. The climate can, as a 
whole, be classified as temperate, yet the country may be considered as divided 
into three zones — the hot, the temperate, and the cold. 

The hot region of this country comprises the Peninsula of Yucatan, the 
State of Tabasco, and the greater part of the States of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas 
near the coast. The torrid district on the Pacific Ocean extends to the Territory 
of Lower California. 

The cold district and the central plateau occupy the plains on the north of 
the States of Michoacan and Mexico, the Federal District, the northern and 
eastern parts of the State of Puebla, the States of Tlaxcala, Hidalgo, Quere- 
taro, and Guanajuato, part of Jalisco, the State of San Luis Potosi, except its 
western part, the States of Aguascalientes and Zacatecas, and the Plains of 
Durango. 

The healthiest climates are, of course, the driest ones, whether hot or 
cold. Mineral springs abound on the tablelands and on the slopes of the 
cordilleras. 

The mean temperature of the city of Mexico is about fifty-eight degrees 
Fahrenheit the year through. In no other country does the temperature 

become so much cooler after 
sunset, and one may walk 
a mile even at noon under 
the tropical sun without 
fatigue. 

The rainy season begins 
at the end of May and lasts 
into October. During this 
time the sun comes out 
brightly in the morning, 
about noon pleasant show- 
ers without wind or violence 
come up, and by sunset all 
is bright again. On the 
Pacific Coast between the twenty-fifth and thirty-fifth parallels the case is reversed, 
and the rainy season falls in the winter months. The difference between winter 




PULQUE VATS. 



RESOURCES 



.497 




and summer is hardly felt. In the rainy season the climate during the day time 
is slightly cooler, but altogether delightful. 

The soil throughout Mexico is, for the most part, extremely fertile. Arti- 
ficial irrigation is in many places resorted to, and is effected by dams or canals. 
Developed property is esti- 
mated at over one billion 
pesos and the vegetation 
everywhere is magnificent. 

Every variety of fruit 
known in Europe or Amer- 
ica is found usually growing 
in profusion. Owing to the 
peculiar structure of the 
country all fruits, with every 
kind of garden vegetable, 
may be obtained in the Mex- 
ican markets the year round. 

The flowers of Mexico 
are among the richest and 

most varied in the world. On Sunday mornings the streets of the capital are 
literally enamelled with blossoms of the most fragrant perfumes and most bril- 
liant colors. 

The fields in the hot districts are adorned with the beautiful green of the 
tobacco, the sugar-cane, and the pampas grass of the coast region; and the 
plantations of mangrove-trees, and the bamboo with its branching foliage, give 
shade to the river banks. In the virgin forests are gigantic fir-trees, with im- 
mense cedars, mahogany trees, and many others rich in foliage as well as useful 
for their fruits and woods. The most luxuriant vines trail from the highest 
branches of the trees, and many varieties of orchids are found. 

In the temperate regions the character of the vegetation changes, but its 
beauty does not lessen. Magnificent forests of liquidamber, various kinds of 
oak, laurel, magnolia, and myrtle, cover the base of the mountains; mosses, 
ferns, and lichens carpet the smooth surface of the rocks, as also the rough bark 
of the trees. Every dale or glen is an orchard where one can gather the most 
palatable of fruits while enjoying the most delightful breezes, and where the 



BOUNDARY LINE BETWEEN JALISCO AND TEPIC. 



498 



MEXICO 



sighing of the winds, the singing of the birds, and the murmur of the waterfalls 
make sweetest music. 

In a country so teeming with foliage and brilliant flowers, the soil is natur- 
ally fertile and productive, because of its richness agriculture is perhaps the 
easiest and most useful occupation. 

Mr. John Barrett, Director General of the Bureau of American Republics, 
says: "Mexico is not only a land of great natural resources in the process 
of utilization, but of vast potentialities capable of remarkable development. 
Mexico has such a variety of natural products, such agricultural and mineral 
wealth, such mingling of fertile plateaus and valleys with large timber areas, 
such extensive coast lines on both the Pacific and Atlantic sides of America, 
such a network of railways, and, with all, such a progressive government under 
the able direction of General Diaz, that few, if any, countries in the world have, 
in proportion to population and area, better prospects and greater possibilities 
for the future." 




AVENUE OF DATE PALMS. SONORA. 



Mr. Barrett has made a study of all Latin America and has always been 
particularly interested in the Republic of Mexico. 



RESOURCES 



499 




A COFFEE AND BANANA PLANTATION. 



In the cultivated regions is grown the maguey, from which the national 
drink, pulque, is extracted. It grows on the great plains and plateaus at a height 
of over seven thousand feet above 
the level of the sea. On the 
Plains of Apam, as far as the eye 
can reach it encounters long rows 
of these plants, about nine feet 
apart. ■ 

The maguey, or agave ameri- 
cana, grows not only in fields, 
which are planted thickly, but in 
ditches set along the fences, and 
in many odd corners which seem 
to be good for nothing else. It 
grows in good land to a great size, 

the central stem often attaining a height of twenty-five or thirty feet and a 
diameter of twelve or fifteen inches; the branches in some instances are a foot 
and a half wide and four or five inches thick. One maguey plant frequently 
yields a hundred and fifty gallons of pulque. A single plant will often yield four 
hundred and fifty-two cubic inches in twenty-four hours. 

One can scarcely imagine the appearance of these immense maguey planta- 
tions. In the country between Mexico and Vera Cruz for hundreds of miles the 
plains and hillsides are seen covered with long, close lines of agave in every stage, 
from the strong, large, generous beauty of the full-grown plant to the young, 
tender green of the newly transplanted shoots. The plant combines within 
itself a dozen different materials for comfort and use. Growing in an absolutely 
dry soil, with no help from irrigation, it has the property of condensing moisture 
and coolness about its roots, which makes it yield at full growth an incredible 
amount of liquid. 

The maguey furnishes two other liquors, not unlike our brandy and whiskey, 
very intoxicating, but very little used. 

It supplies the native, besides, with a primitive needle and thread; it gives 
a species of hempen cloth from the coarser tissue and of paper from the inner 
pulp; it provides a good thatch for houses; and the debris, dried, makes fuel in 
regions where wood is scarce. 



500 



MEXICO 



It is said to be the most wholesome drink in the world, and remarkably 
agreeable when one has overcome the first shock occasioned by its rancid odor. 
At all events, the maguey is a source of unfailing profit, the consumption of 
pulque being enormous, so that many of the richest families in the capital owe 
their fortune entirely to the -produce of their magueys. 

Of recent years Mexico has come forward with a new resource that 
bids fair to outrival the United States in oil production. The oil fields in 
various parts of the country have developed to such an extent that many 
prospectors from Europe as well as other parts of America have reaped great 
results. 

There is a curious production of nature, the organos, which resembles the 
barrels of pipes of an organ. The plants growing close together and about 
six feet high and being covered with prickles, make the strongest natural fence 
imaginable, besides being covered with beautiful flowers. 

The sugar-cane was unknown to the ancient Mexicans, who made syrup 
of honey and also from the maguey, and sugar from the stalk of maize. The 
sugar-cane was brought by the Spaniards from the Canary Islands to Santo 
Domingo, whence it passed to Cuba and Mexico. The first sugar-canes were 
planted in 1520, by Don Pedro de Atienza. The first cylinders were constructed 
by Gonzalez de Velosa and the first sugar mills built by the Spaniards at that 

time were worked by hy- 
draulic wheels, and not by 
horses. Humboldt, who ex- 
amined the will of Cortes, 
said that the conqueror had 
left sugar-plantations near 
Coyoacan. 

There is no enterprise in 
Mexico at the present time 
which can be compared with 
coffee culture. Mexico is 
admirably adapted to cof- 
fee growing, and her coffee 
ranks among the finest in the world. The finest quality is produced in Colima, 
Oaxaca, Michoacan, Morelos, and Vera Cruz. 




COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR CORDOBA. 



RESOURCES 501 

The soil and climatic conditions necessary to the successful production of 
the coffee-berry are so peculiar that, though it grows in all countries between the 
tropics, the acreage exactly adapted to it is comparatively small. Entire absence 
of extremes of heat and cold, a moist atmosphere, fertile soil, and freedom from 
draught, are indispensable to the production of remunerative crops. 

Among the few districts in the world where the vanilla bean grows are the 
States of Jalisco and Hidalgo, Vera Cruz, Chiapas and Oaxaca. The exportation 
of this product has given Mexico an enviable reputation, as its properties are 
most favorably known abroad. 

Tobacco is cultivated in several places in the States of Vera Cruz, Tabasco, 
Campeche and Yucatan. An excellent grade is raised and there has been a 
great increase in the exportation lately. It was introduced into Mexico during 
the Cuban War, and cigars were made by the refugees. 

To the process of manufacture which the Cuban immigrants brought into 
Mexico is due the progress made in this branch of the national industry. 

There are favorable conditions for cotton culture, and Mexico might easily 
rival the United States and the Indies. The use of cotton clothes was, in fact, 
general with the ancient Mexicans; and from the beginning of this century cotton 
was worth at Vera Cruz three or four times less than anywhere else. 

Henequen, of all the textile plants which abound in Mexico, is one which 
is the most assiduously cultivated. 

The " Pita," which abounds in a wild state in Oaxaca gives a fibre resembling 
that of the ramie and answering the same purposes. Ropes made with Oaxaca 
pita are four times stronger than those of hemp. 

The cultivation of the India-rubber tree has become very profitable. Young 
trees transplanted from a forest to a cultivated field in Soconusco have yielded 
rubber for more than thirty-five years, the present annual product is averaging 
more than fifty pounds of gum for each tree. 

The Mexican gum deserves to be taken into consideration. The plants 
which produce it are found in considerable quantities in all the forests of the hot 
districts, and especially in those of the States of Vera Cruz, Tamaulipas, and Ta- 
basco, and on the Pacific slope, on the coast of the States of Guerrero, Oaxaca, 
Chiapas, Tepic, etc. It is stated that in Tuxpan the milk drawn from the rub- 
ber trees is placed in earthenware jars and whipped with a weed called coyuntla 
which is an astringent that causes the milk to curdle, making the crude rubber. 



502 



MEXICO 



The mulberry tree, to which place is here given because it is the indispensable 
complement of the silk industry, grows in both hot and temperate climates. 
Under the colonial regime several successful attempts to plant mulberry trees 
were made in Mexico. 

The tree grows with great rapidity in this country. Besides the plantations 
of small shoots, there have been made considerable plantings of the mulberry 
seed, which have proved profitable. 

The interest taken by Japan in the resources of Mexico was evident by the 
number of representatives that country sent to make a complete study of the 
conditions, in order to increase the trade between the two countries. An exhibi- 
tion of Japanese arts and crafts in Mexico City during the Centennial was one 
of the interesting features. It was under the direction of the Japanese Charge 
d'affaires, Honorable Kuma Horigoutchi, who has done so much to promote a 
friendly relation between the two nations. 




PACK TRAIN WITH SUGAR ON THE ROAD TO MARKET. 




CHAC-MOOL IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, CITY OF MEXICO. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

RUINS 

MEXICO is pre-eminently the land of mystery of the Western World. It 
contains abundant traces of a civilization far older than any other on this 
continent, and now that a key to the Maya inscriptions has been found, it is 
reasonable to expect that systematic exploration will result in reconstructing, 
at least partially, the history of a vanished race, and throw some light on the 
interesting question of its antiquity as well as of its origin and with it give us 
some knowledge of what is now the prehistoric period of North America. It 
is scarcely possible to overestimate the importance of Mexico's movement to 
have the archaeological treasures of the country properly investigated. A bill 
has been passed by Congress to empower American scientists to make excava- 
tions in this country, provided the objects found be divided equally between 

the two nations. 

505 



506 



MEXICO 




RUINS AT MITLA. 



The ruins of Mitla are situated in the State of Oaxaca. They cover many 
acres of ground and are the best preserved ruins in Mexico. Where vandalism 

has not destroyed them, the 
walls are as perfect as when 
erected. 

The buildings are very 
extensive, and are magnifi- 
cent in the skill and art 
shown in their construction. 
They were so designed as 
to face a central square. 
They were not connected 
at the corners, but the cen- 
tre court was projected by 
a wall of rock and mortar 
which filled the spaces. 
Each building had only three openings, all facing the court. There were no 
windows or other means of lighting the interior. The walls were made of a very 
tenacious adobe, veneered 
both within and without 
with finely cut stone laid in 
regular courses and inter- 
spersed with panels that 
are filled with what may be 
denominated herringbone 
work, in a profusion of pat- 
terns each cut to fill its 
particular place, whether a 
square or a scroll, and the 
joints are so perfect that 
only the thinnest kind of 
cement could be used, and, 
after centuries of earth- 
quakes, these joints are so perfect as to call forth the admiration of all who 
behold them. The lintels over the doorways are each of one solid stone, and 





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pwlpi 


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iHisp ' " 




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SEPULCHRE, NEAR MITLA, OAXACA. 



RUINS 



507 



with all our modern appliances and engineering skill, it would be considered a 
great triumph to place them in their position. 

Recently there have been some excavations made on the Island of Sacri- 
ficios by Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, a native of California and a member of many 




ARCH OF THE "GOVERNMENT HOUSE," UXMAL, YUCATAN. 



archaeological societies. Until this interesting woman explored these parts no 
knowledge of prehistoric edifices existed. But her discoveries of pottery and 
the remains of a fallen city have added another ruin to those already explored 
in Mexico. 

Among the ruins which have most frequently attracted the attention of 
explorers in Mexico is a monument which Baron von Humboldt designated the 
"Military Entrenchments of Xochicalco. " It is a few miles from Cuernavaca 
in the State of Morelos. The walls of this pyramid and the exterior are sculp- 
tured with what is supposed to be chronological hieroglyphics. These are in a 
state of decay but under the clinging moss one may distinguish serpents and 



508 



MEXICO 



warriors in oriental posture with adornments and plumes on the head. Animals 
of all kinds are distinguishable in these unique carvings. Several caves of great 
importance, have been discovered, chief of these is the Cueva de los Amates. 

The venerable pyramids of San Juan Teotihuacan are the most remarkable 
remnants of ancient American civilization. They were found by the Aztecs, 
according to their traditions, on their entrance into the country. The two prin- 
cipal pyramids were dedicated to Tonatiuh, the 
sun, and Mextli, the moon. They are not inferior 
to those of some of the kindred monuments of 
Egypt. They were divided into four stories, 
three of which are now discernible. The interiors 
are composed of clay mixed with pebbles, en- 
crusted on the surface with the light, porous 
stone tetzontli, so abundant in the neighboring 
quarries. Over this was a thick coating of 
stucco, resembling in its reddish color that found 
in the ruins of Palenque. According to tradi- 
tion, the pyramids are hollow, but hitherto the 
attempt to discover the cavity in that dedicated 
to the sun has been unsuccessful. These monu- 
ments were devoted to religious uses, and it 
would be only conformable to the practice of 
antiquity on the eastern hemisphere that they 
should have served for tombs as well as temples. 
These ruins cover an area very nearly as 
large as that of the present city of Mexico and 
the streets are distinctly marked by the ruins of 
the houses. 
It has been said that America is a land without traditions, without poetry, 
and without castles. Ignorance is the only excuse for those under this im- 
pression; for in Mexico are ancient ruins of buildings that were hoary with age 
when the famous castles of the Rhine and the comparatively young strongholds 
of England were in process of erection. Away back in the Middle Ages, when 
the romance of Europe is supposed to have originated, there was a civilization 
in Mexico that was even then historic. It is an ignorance that may, perhaps, be 




CHICHEN-ITZA, YUCATAN. 



RUINS 



509 



pardoned, since even our 
wisest archaeologists and 
deepest scientific students ■ 
of modern times cannot yet 
determine the age or origin 
of the most ancient of these 
landmarks. 

No more interesting 
people for the modern stu- 
dent ever existed than the 
Aztecs, who seem to have 
been the equal in intelli- 
gence and advancement of 
any tribe in the world at 

the time. The Aztecs were most sincere in the practice of their religious rites. 
They believed in a supreme creator, invisible yet omnipresent, but requiring 
numerous assistants to perform his will, each of whom presided over some special 
natural phenomenon or phase of human existence. They had thirteen principal 
and several hundred inferior deities. The dread Huitzilopochtli, the war god of 
the Aztecs, was the patron divinity of the race, and myriads of human victims 




RUINS AT MITLA, OAXACA. 




PYRAMID OF THE SUN, SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN. 



510 



MEXICO 



were sacrificed to him yearly in countless pyramidal temples throughout the 
realm. Quetzalcoatl, a more beneficent deity, was described by the natives as 
a tall white man, with a large forehead and flowing beard, who taught his favored 



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RUINS OF PALENQUE, CHIAPAS. 



people the art of government and the various arts of peace, forbade bloody 
sacrifices and permitted only those of bread, roses, and perfumes. This god 
of the air, as he was named, having incurred the displeasure of one of the other 
chief deities, was compelled to leave the country, but on quitting the shores 
of the gulf, he promised to return, and the Mexican always looked forward to the 
auspicious day. 

The ruins of Uxmal, Chichen, Izamal, Mayapan, and Labna have been ex- 
plored by Stephens and other archaeologists. Those of Uxmal, the most remark- 
able, are situated about fifty miles southwest of Merida. They comprise numerous 
massive limestone structures built on broad terraced platforms, and all highly 
ornamented. The largest single building, called "the government house," 
has a front of three hundred and twenty-two feet, and contains twenty-four 
rooms. The most beautiful structure is the "house of the nuns," composed of 



RUINS 



511 



four ranges enclosing a large court-yard, with eighty-eight apartments. The 
"house of the dwarf," on a very steep mound eighty-eight feet high was a 
teocalli for human sacrifices. But little definite is known of the use of the tem- 
ples and other vast edifices, which, from their size and profuse ornamentation 
in carved and colored figures and bas-relief, are, even in their ruined state, among 
the most wonderful architectural relics of the Western World. 

Equally interesting are the ruins of Chichen-Itza, which are perhaps the 
most remarkable in Yucatan. They have the distinguishing feature common to 
all — the impossibility of ascertaining the purposes or uses of the extraordinary 
structures which still stand in testimony of the high degree of civilization of a 
people long since forgotten. 

In Campeche, where many wild animals and enormous serpents abound, 
the ruins of H6ch-ob stand in a retreat of tropical verdure. Though small in 
proportion to those of Yucatan, the construction has been pronounced even 
superior by scientists who have braved great dangers to explore them. 




'HOUSE OF THE DOVES," UXMAL, YUCATAN. 



7 1912 



